V/ . C7 . K^i, OL/ / rrt. ^ y ^ r m American Railway Engineering Association May 1997 Volume 98, Bulletin 760 BOARD OF DIRECTION 1997-1998 President Mr. p. R. Ogden, Norfolk Southern, Vice President-Engineering, 99 Spring Street, Room 801 , Atlanta, GA 30303 Vice Presidents Mr. D. C. Kelly, Illinois Central Railroad, Vice President-Maintenance, 17641 S. Ashland, Homewood, IL 60430 Mr. Rick Richardson, Jr., Canadian National Railways, Chief Engineer, 935 de la Gauchetiere Street, West Montreal, PQ-H3B 2M9 Past Presidents Mr. B. G. Willbrant, Amtrak, Assistant Chief Engineer, 21 Berkshire Drive, Wayne, PA 19087 Mr. J. R. Beran, Union Pacific Railroad, Chief Engineer-Maintenance of Way Structures, 1416 Dodge Street, Room 1000, Omaha, NE 68179 Treasurer Mr. W. B. Dwinnell, III, SEPTA, Railroad Division, Chief Line Maintenance Officer, 1234 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107 Directors Mr. J. R. Clark, Jr., CSX, Assistant Chief Engineer, 500 Water Street, Jacksonville, PL 32202 Mr. E. p. Reilly, Union Pacific Railroad, Chief Engineer-MAV Central, 1 860 Lincoln Street, 14th Floor, Denver, CO 80295 Mr. L. Anderson, Illinois Central, Superintendent Engineering, P.O. Box 2600, Jackson, MS 39103 Inc. Lorenzo Reyes R., FNM, Director Ferrocarril Sureste, Estacion Terminal, Montesinos S/N Colonia Altos, Veracruz, Mexico 91700 Mr. W. C. Thompson, Union Pacific Railroad, Director Engineering Research, 1416 Dodge Street, MC 3300, Omaha, NE 68179 Ms. C. D. Wylder, MARTA, Executive VP Operations and Development, 2424 Piedmont Road, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30324-3330 Mr. R. L. Keller, Montana Rail Link, Chief Engineer, PO. Box 8779, 210 International Way, Missoula, MT 59807 Mr. John Cunningham, Amtrak, Assistant Chief Engineer-Track, 3rd Floor, South Tower 30th Street Station, Philadelphia, PA 19104 Mr. Michael Roney, CP Rail System, General Manager-Engineering Services and Systems, Suite 500, Gulf Canada Square, 401 -9th Avenue, S.E., Calgary, Alberta T2P 4Z4 Canada Mr. Walter Heide, Conrail, Assistant Chief Engineer-MAV, 2001 Market Street, Room 10-B, Philadelphia, PA 19101-1410 Mr. Gary Woods, Norfolk Southern, AVP-Maintenance of Way Structures, 99 Spring Street, Box 142, Atlanta, GA 30303 Mr. Michael Armstrong, BNSF, AVP-Maintenance Planning, 2600 Lou Menk Drive, Ft. Worth, TX 76131-2830 Executive Director David E. Staplin 50 F Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20001 (202) 639-2190 American Railway Engineering Association BULLETIN No. 760 MAY 1997 Proceedings Volume 98 (1997) D. E. Staplin, Editor CONTENTS Cover Story: Reconstruction of Saco River Rail/Highway Bridge Crossing: A Partnering Project in Design, Construction and Finance 1 Proposed 1997 AREA l\/lanual Revisions (Chapters 5, 8, 16, 18 and the AAR Scale Handbook) 9 Presentations at the 1997 Annual AREA Technical Conference — March 1997 1. Norfolk Southern Trackside Lubrication Studies — 1997 Interim Report. . . 67 2. The Philosophy and Development of AREA Seismic Design Criteria .... 77 3. Fracture Toughness Testing of AREA Grade B Hand Tool Steel 83 4. The Potential of the CFS MOW Estimating Relationships as a Basis for Cost Allocation 91 5. Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck Steel Deck Plate-Girder Bridge . . 101 6. Improving Infrastructure Reliability Through Engineering Facility Management System Standardization 1 07 7. Managing Rail Resources 139 8. On the Benefits of Rail Maintenance Grinding 149 9. Service Level Live Load Stress Ranges on Hangers and Floor Beams of Steel Railway Bridges 169 Technical Papers: 1. Development of a Recycled Plastic/Composite Crosstie 181 Memoirs: Eldon E. Farris 189 Edward Q. Johnson 190 Index of Advertisers 201 Index of Consulting Engineers 201 Front Cover: Reconstructing the Saco River Rail/Highway Bridge in Saco, Maine. Published by the American Railway Engineering Association, March, May, October and December at 50 F St.. N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20001 Second class postage at Washington. D.C. and at additional mailing offices Subscription $81.00 per annum Copyright© 1997 AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION (ISSN 0003-0694) All rights reserved POSTMASTER: Send address changes to American Railway Engineering Association Bulletin. 50 F Street. N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20001 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in an information or data retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise — without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the American Railway Engineering Association 50 F St., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20001 SUPPLIERS OF equipment and Quality Repair Ports RECONSTRUCTION OF SACO RIVER RAIL/HIGHWAY BRIDGE CROSSING: A PARTNERING PROJECT IN DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND FINANCE By: Vinay Mudholkar* (This is a synopsis of the presentation made to the AREA Technical Conference on March 18, 1997) Guilford Rail System's east-west main-line traverses thru the heart of the City of Saco, Maine and is carried over Saco River falls on the bridge called Cataract Bridge. The bridge structure also carries busy Main street (Rt. 9) at grade across the railroad. The railroad bridge and highway bridge were interconnected structurally and were supported on common piers. This unique complexity posed a difficult challenge to the engineers of the railroad, DOT and City and required a strong part- nership between designers, constructors, and suppliers for the success of the project. The highway/railroad bridge crossing is composed of 5 interconnecting super structures, which were replaced during the construction. The 4 bridge spans carry 2 main-line tracks, but at present time only one track is in operation. Due to the existing conditions, track speed was restricted to 10 MPH. Upon completion of the project, the speed was raised to 30 MPH. Cross vehicular highway traffic today is 22,250 (AADT) travelling at 25 MPH limit. Highway traffic growth was projected at 31,150 (AADT) by the year 2012. During the summertime tourist traffic is significant in the area and is a major revenue source to local merchants.The rail corridor has also been a subject of study for passenger trains and intermodal traffic and, therefore, the provision of double track was an essential capacity element. A joint partnering effort was undertaken right from the start of the design process. This part- nering effort addressed concerns of highway traffic, railroad operations, requirements of utility com- panies, needs of local merchants and citizens affected by the project. Without such cooperation dur- ing the design and construction this project could not have been accomplished within the limited resources and time frame. The Project also was safely completed using safe construction practices and good project management. The bridge has an interesting long history and has played an important role in local as well as interstate transportation. Major historic events were as follows: 1837: Town of Saco built 2 span roadway bridge carrying Main street over Saco River 1872: Boston and Maine Railroad builds railroad bridge thru, replacing roadway spans; the structure is now modified to carry two modes of transportation. 1884: Boston and Maine rebuilt the structure for higher capacity. 1887: Biddeford and Saco Street railway was built along the center of Main street crossing; intersecting the freight lines. Structure is now carrying three modes of transportation. 1919: All bridge spans were replaced; disputes arose amongst the owners; Public Utilities Com- mission of State of Maine stepped in and established a cost allocation for the construction and future maintenance. *Deputy Director; MBTA — Former Chief Engineer; GTI — Boston, MA. Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 1939; Biddeford and Saco Sheet Railway discontinued service and removed the street railway tracks. Main street became part of Maine State Highway system and is now designated as Route 9. 1995: Design, specifications, plans were prepared and cost allocation was agreed upon for con- struction and future maintenance. 1996: Thru the partnering efforts, the highway and railroad superstructure was replaced within 24 days and a budget of 2.5 million dollars. Work was performed 24 hours per day, 7 days per week. Public meetings and hearings were held in the City of Saco for public information and com- ments. City staff was extremely helpful in accommodating the project needs and clo.sely worked with the engineers in the entire design and construction process. It was realized that the project construc- tion could be speeded up by working round the clock, 7 days a week for 4 to 5 weeks. The very crit- ical element was the closure of the highway for that construction time period. Detour arrangements were worked out on the local roads and toll free access was provided to motorists to travel between two local exits of the Maine Turnpike. A bus shuttle was also arranged to transport local citizens who used to walk across the bridge using the sidewalks. Amongst the suppliers. Premier Company of Portland. Oregon played a significant role in spe- cially manufacturing the railroad bridge crossing concrete deck, which supports the railroad's two main-line tracks, on the steel deck plate girders. For over 28 years Premier modular concrete railroad crossings have been successfully used in the rail industry and it provided expertise in modifying basic modules with appropriate structural requirements. The conventional wood crossing deck supported on wood ties was a constant troublesome area for repairs and was a rough riding surface. Roadway salt had leaked thru the timber deck causing major corrosion of the bridge steel. The ride over the timber deck at the crossing was certainly not comfortable to motorists, and timber fasteners used to cause problems. Frequent crossing deck repairs required street closure periodically, causing incon- venience to motorists and local businesses. The selection of Premier concrete crossing provided a smooth and durable ride quality surface eliminating repairs. Speed and ease of total construction of the project was achieved thru prefabrication and simul- taneous work activities by a good work plan (Figures 1 & 2). Premier bridge deck crossing modules were specially designed and cast for this project. Premier modules were pre-cast reinforced concrete modules which used 7,500 psi concrete at 28 day strength. The average strength tested was 8,000 psi for concrete. Reinforcement used was 70,000 psi. Rails are encased in a continuous 85 durometer non-conductive TPE rubber boot, to dampen vibration and prevent abrasion of concrete against rail- steel. This also results in electrical isolation and less rail wheel noise. Rails can easily be replaced by removing center panels. Rails are locked into exactly formed recesses supported on a solid reinforced concrete base slab unit, installed on the bridge girders. The heaviest pre-cast concrete section weighed under 29,000 lbs. The standard module was 8.00 ft. long and 13 ft. wide and designed to carry highway loading of HS25 and railroad loading of E80. Units were 1 8 inches thick and rein- forced to carry the loadings. In all, there were 6 different module shapes used to accommodate the required bridge layout. Steel channels were used as shear connectors to provide connections to bridge plate girders. The units were cast at Premier's pre-cast facility in Ottsville, Pennsylvania. The units were quick to install and connect over the deck, and within 2 hours 90 feet of bridge deck was assem- bled for the support of the main-line rails. A standard boom truck was used to pull the rails and the center section was bolted down to secure the rail in the position (Figure 3). A % inch Fabrica pad was placed between the Premier modules and steel girders as the bearing pad to soften the deck impact on steel. Upon final placement, the modules were grouted at the connectors (Figure 4). The entire process was efficient and the main-line traffic was quickly restored over the bridge crossing without major delay to rail traffic (Figure 5). Paper by V. Mudholkar Figure 1 P T ^ Figure 2 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Figure 3 Figure 4 Paper by V. Mudholkar Figure 5 Railroad girders were fabricated by National Eastern of Plainville. Ct.; using ASTM A588 structural steel, with yield strength of 50,000 psi. Highway pre-cast prestressed concrete girders were fabricated by StresCon of New Brunswick, Canada using 6,000 psi concrete. Prestressing strands were 1/2 uncoated 7 wire low relaxation ASTM A416 Grade 270 steel, with yield strength of 270,000 psi. The highway deck slab was cast in place using 3,000 psi concrete and 60,000 psi reinforcing steel. The new highway superstructure was supported on common piers of the railroad structure; but is not interconnected: thus separating ownership and maintenance responsibility. Two railroad spans which were not under the crossing were strengthened by repairs performed by railroad crews and additional cover plates were placed, using high strength bolts. Structural replacement work was performed by CPM Contractors of Portland, Maine; with good quality and efficiency. Track work and signal work was performed by railroad forces very effectively. Roadway approaches were built by the City. Utilities were also relocated during the construction; from old structures to new structures. These were: NYNEX Telephone conduit, water-line of Saco Water Company, sanitary sewer of City of Saco. fiber optics cables of U.S. Sprint and AT &T , Railroad signal conduit, overhead cables of Continental Cablevision, Central Maine Power and Saco fire department. All of the interested par- ties worked together in partnership and at reasonable costs. Excellent cooperation resulted in a good safety record, and no undue inconvenience was caused. Local merchants whose business were affected due to the Main Street closure were particularly to be thanked for their accommodation. Without their cooperation, this project could not have been accomplished within such a short con- struction period. Koppers inausxnes... solving nroDiems wr America s Maiiroaas Why Koppers Industries? Thirteen Strategically Located Wood Treating Plants • 920 Dedicated Employees • Over Eighty Years of Service to Railroads • A National Tie Procurement Network • Wood and Concrete Crossties • Wood and Concrete Switch Ties • Used Tie Disposal • Car Cleaning • Tie Pre-Plating • Track Panels • Concrete Turnouts • Wood and Concrete Grade Crossings Enough Said? Tie Pre-Plating Track Panels Tie Disposal Turnouts Railroads around the world know Koppers Industries, Inc. for high quality crossties. But there is more... much more. Today, KM is helping America's railroads with a wide array of innovative products and services... all designed to solve problems and improve efficiency. The Railroad Products and Services Division offers track panels, concrete turnouts. wood and concrete ties, switch ties and wood and concrete grade cross- ings. Our cost cutting services include tie pre-plating, tie disposal, warehousing, crosstie rehabilitation, car cleaning and special packaging. Call us today. Let's talk about our solutions to your problems. Koppers Industries. ..in partnership witli America's Railroads. rpsdi KOPPERS INDUSTRIES Railroad Products and Services Division Koppers Building, 436 Seventh Avenue Pittsburgh, PA 15219 Phone 1 -888-567-8437 Fax 412-227-2328 The Single-Component Solution OMNI's Standard Concrete-Rubber (SCR) System, concrete panels with built-in rubber flangeway fillers: Streamlines handling and installation • Eliminates the hassles associated with top-down rubber • Saves time and money 1-800-203-8034 OMBU^ GRADE CROSSING SYSTEMS ^_^ amON HEIPS YOU li (OHM JUL OF m ^ Kin CHEATER^ EFHOENCV m USA: Tel: 412/962-3571 • Fax: 412/962-4310 CANADA: Tel: 905/873-9440 • Fax: 905/873-9449 EUROPE: Tel: +44(0)1932-247511 • Fax: *44(0)1932-220937 CATTRON" Info, via World TOde Web: www.cattron.com LJObS m®ra FREE BROCHURE Meet the family of track experts Tie Tampers in six sizes, Tie Handiers, Tie inserters, Grinding Moduies and Trains, Uitrasonic Raii Flaw Detection and a full range of Rail Measurement Sen/ices. Quality Equipment manufactured to meet or exceed the demand- ing standards of ISO 9001. When the bottom line counts, count on us. "Total Quality Keeps Us On Track"® -^ Pandrol Jackson Pandrol Jackson, Incorporated 200 South Jackson Road Ludington Michigan 49431 Telephone 616-843-3431 FAX 616-8434830 Proposed 1997 AREA Manual and Portfolio Revisions The following proposed Revisions of the AREA Manual for Railway Engineering and Portfolio ofTrackwork Plans have been recommended to the Association by the Technical Committee respon- sible for each after a letter ballot is approved by: (1) a two-thirds majority of the eligible members \ oting. and (2) by at least fifty percent of the total eligible voting members on the committee. They are being published here for comment by the general AREA membership and any other interested parties. Comments should be sent to AREA headquarters by June 15, 1997. These comments will be considered by the AREA Board of Direction in deciding whether to give final approval for inclusion of the proposed changes in the Manual and Portfolio Revisions, which if approved, go into effect August 1, 1997. Proposed 1997 Manual Revisions to Chapter 5 — Track Part 6 — Specifications and Plans for Track Tools Page 5-6-4. Substitute the following revised te.xt for Part 6, Specifications and Plans for Track Tools. Section 6.1 Specifications for Track Tools (1997) GENERAL 1.0 Workmanship 1 . 1 The steel used in the manufacture of all tools shall be free from pipe, porous centers, gross non-metallic inclusions or any other defects. 1.2 The chemical composition of percussion tools will be as stated in 8.3.1. 1.3 Unless specifically stated otherwise in the section on non-percussion tools, the chemical composition of non-percussion tools made from carbon steel will be as follows: Carbon Manganese Phosphorous Sulfur Grade Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Carbon .55 .70 .60 .90 .05 .05 1.4 All tools shall be made in a workmanlike manner and shall be free from cracks, seams, laps and other injurious discontinuities. Tools shall be free from burrs and sharp edges not specifically shown on the plans. 1.5 Eyes of tools with handle holes must be on center and in true alignment. 2.0 Finish 2.1 Percussion Tools The body of the tool will be unpainted. The entire tool will be coated with a transparent lacquer type rust preventative. 2.2 Non-Percussion tools The body of the tool will be coated with paint, oil or varnish to prevent corrosion. Each pol- ished cutting edge will be oiled or coated with a transparent lacquer type rust preventative. 10 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 3.0 Marking 3. 1 Each tool shall be legibly marked by stamping the following. 3.1.1 The manufacturer's name and/or trademark. 3. 1 .2 A code indicating the production lot. 3. 1 .3 For tools manufactured for use in the United States, any information required by the U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety And Health Administration (OSHA). For tools manufac- tured for use in other countries, the requirements of that country will apply. This pertains primarily to lifting devices used by cranes but may also be required for other tools. The manufacturer will also furnish certified testing and/or other information with each item shipped as needed to comply with OSHA Standards or the requirements of other countries. 3.1.4 If requested by the purchaser, a specific marking indicating the railroad for which the tool was made. 3.2 The marking shall be located in a position which will not interfere with the quality or per- formance of the tool, and will not be removed by subsequent redressing. 4.0 Inspection 4. 1 The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry, at all times while the work on the contract of the purchases is being performed, to all parts of the manufacturer's works which concern the manufacture of the materials ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the inspector free of charge, all reasonable facilities and necessary assistance to satisfy the inspector that the material is being furnished in accordance with these specifications. Tests and inspections shall be made prior to shipment at the place of manufacture unless otherwise specified. 4.2 The purchaser may make tests to govern the acceptance or rejection in the purchaser's lab- oratory or elsewhere. Such tests shall be made at the expense of the purchaser. 4.3 Rejection — Material represented by samples which fail to conform to the requirements of these specifications will be rejected. 4.4 Material which, subsequent to test and inspection at the manufacturer's plant or elsewhere, and the acceptance shows injurious defects will be rejected and the manufacturer shall be notified. 5.0 Shipment or Delivery Tools shall be properly packed for shipment to avoid damage. All bundles and boxes shall be plainly marked with the name of the purchaser, purchaser's order number, the name of the supplier, and the point of shipment. 6.0 Warranty The manufacturer shall warrant that all tools are free from defects in material, workmanship and heat treatment, that the tools meet all requirements of this specification, and that any defective tools will be replaced free of cost to the purchaser. Certified test report may be requested by the purchaser. PERCUSSION TOOLS 7.0 Scope 7.1 This section of specifications covers the contouring and metallurgical requirements for the manufacturing, ordering, inspection and acceptance of the following percussion tools. 7.1.1 Metal to Metal Contact Striking Tools Spike Maul Plan No. 3-83 Double-Face Sledge Hammers Plan No. 13-83 Proposed Manual Changes 7.1.2 Metal To Metal Contact Struck Tools Track Chisels Plan No. 17-83 Round Track Punch Plan No. 19-83 Track Spike Lifter Plan No. 32-83 Nut Cutter Plan No. 35-83 3 lb. Hot Cutter Plan No. 36-83 5 lb. Hot Cutter Plan No. 37-83 Drift Pin-Short Plan No. 38-83 Drift Pin-Long Plan No. 39-83 Spiking Too! Plan No. 41-94 8.0 Manufacture 8. 1 Process — The shock resisting steel shall be made from carbon deoxidized special quality fine grain size alloy bar produced in accordance with ASTM A576, Standard Specification For Steel Bars, Carbon, Hot- Wrought, Special Quality. 8.2 Heat Treatment 8.2.1 Each tool classified in 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 shall be hardened by liquid quenching and subse- quent tempering in such a manner that the hardness range will be maintained to a sufficient depth to absorb the normal working stresses. This heat treatment shall be such that a fracture test of the tool will exhibit a silky, fine grained appearance according to Shephard Standard No. 6 or finer. 8.2.2 All tools made with alloy steel to be redressed without subsequent heat treatment shall be initially heat treated so that the hardness specified in 8.3.2 is maintained to depth from the end not less than the average cross sectional thickness. 8.3 Chemical and Hardness Requirements 8.3. 1 Ail striking and struck tools (7.1.1 and 7. 1 .2) shall be made of shock resisting alloy steel chemical composition with standard AISl residuals. Carbon Manganese Phos. Sul- fur Silicon Vanadium Molyb- denum Grade Min Max Min Max Max Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Alloy .51 .60 .75 1.00 .025 .025 1.80 2.20 .45 .35 .50 8.3.2 Hardness — All hardness tests shall be performed according to the latest revision of ASTM Spec. E-18. Frequency of testing should be performed to the requirements in the latest revi- sion of MIL-STD-105D, Military Standard Sampling Procedure Tables for Inspection Attributes." 8.3.2.1 All struck surfaces shall be 44/48 Rockwell "C" Hardness. 8.3.2.2 All striking surfaces shall be 51/55 Rockwell "C" Hardness. 8.3.2.3 All cutting surfaces shall be 56/60 Rockwell "C" Hardness. 8.3.2.4 All punch ends shall be 52/56 Rockwell "C" Hardness. 8.4 Hardenability 8.4.1 Alloy Steel — Composition of the steel shall be such that in the standard Jominy test the hardness is greater than 50 Rockwell C at 8/16 inch from the quenched end of the specimen. 8.4.2 Frequency of Testing — The steel manufacturer shall have conducted a Jominy test from the first, middle and last ingot of each heat of steel purchased. Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 8.5 Microscopic Inclusion Evaluation 8.5.1 Alloy steel shall meet the following requirements for inclusions. 8.5.2 Test Specimens — Specimens shall be taken from approximately 4 inch (100 mm) forged, square section taken from the top and bottom of the first, middle and last ingot. The specimen shall be Vs by -A inch (9.5 by 19 mm) and shall be taken from an area midway between the center and out- side of the test section. Procedures outlined in the latest revision of ASTM Method E 45 shall be fol- lowed. 8.5.3 Examination and Limits — Specimens shall be examined in accordance with the latest revision of ASTM Method E 45, Method D, using the modified JK Chart Fig. 12 of Plate III. The worst field in any specimen shall not exceed the following limits: A B C D Thin 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 Thick 2.0 2.5 1.5 1.5 8.6 Nondestructive Test Requirements 8.6. 1 To insure that all tools are free from defects listed in 1 .0, each tool shall be inspected after finished grinding by the supplier according to one of the following procedures: 8.6.1.1 Magnetic Particle Inspection in accordance with the latest revision of ASTM Method A-275. 8.6.1.2 Liquid Penetrant Inspection in accordance with the latest revision of ASTM Recommended Practice E-165. 9.0 Design 9.1 All tools shall conform substantially when applicable to the dimensions set forth. Dimensions for head contours as shown in Plans A-83, B-83 or C-83, D-83. 9.1.1 Head Contour 9.1.1.1 Heads of tools with a round cross section shall be ground to the comer contours pre- scribed in Plans A-83, B-83 or C-83. 9.1.1.2 Heads of tools with a hexagonal or octagonal cross section should also be ground to the comer contours prescribed in Plans A-83, B-83 or C-83. In addition, the arcs not tangent to the hexag- onal or octagonal comers shall be "blended" into a smooth contour similar to that shown in Plan D-83. 9.1.1.3 Punch ends shall have comer radii according to 9. I.I.I, but with no crown radius. 9.1.1.4 All ground surfaces shall be free of decarburization. Non-Percussion Tools (Materials, Inspection And Physical Tests) 10.0 Clay Pick— Plan No. 1 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3, or alloy steel as specified in AISI 4140. No special tests required. 11.0 Tamping Pick— Plan No. 2 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3, or alloy steel as specified in AISI 4140. No special tests required. 12.0 Spike Maul— Plan No. 3 See percussion tools. Proposed Manual Changes 13 13.0 Track Wrenches— Plan No. 4 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. One wrench to be tested from each lot of 10 dozen or less by applying for 1 minute a load of 400 lb. at a point distant from the jaw end equal to 95 percent of the total length of the wrench without any spreading of the jaw or any perma- nent set in the handle. If requested by the purchaser. Section 8.6. Nondestructive Test Requirements will be adhered to. 14.0 Lining Bars— Plan No. 5 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1 .3. One bar to be tested from each lot of 10 dozen or less by applying a load of 350 lb. 9 in. from the end of the handle, with the point suit- ably secured 6 in. from the end, without leaving a permanent set in excess of 'A in. 15.0 Rail Tongs— Plan No. 6 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. No special tests required. 16.0 Tie Tongs — Plan No. 7 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. No special tests required. 17.0 Timber Tongs— Plan No. 8 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1 .3. Three pair of tongs to be tested from each lot of 10 dozen or less by suspending a load of 300 lb. or 400 lb. Work wi.se in the tongs with the handles in a horizontal position and supported 2 in. from the end. Deflection with 300 lb. weight shall not exceed 1 in. with no permanent set, and with 400 lb. weight deflection shall not exceed l-'/j in. with a permanent set not to exceed 'A in. 18.0 Spike Puller— Plan No. 9 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1 .3. One puller from each lot of 10 dozen or less to be tested in actual use by pulling a spike with a standard claw bar. 19.0 Rail Fork— Plan No. 10 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. No special tests required. 20.0 Claw Bar— Plan No. 11 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. In the manufacture of claw bars, Section 8.6, Nondestructive Test Requirements will be adhered to. One bar from each lot of 10 dozen or less to be tested by placing the claws of the bar Vi in. under the head of a standard spike, rigidly placed and so located as to hold the bar in a horizontal position while a shock load equivalent to that of a 200 lb. weight falling a distance of 1 ft. is applied to the handle at a point 5 in. from its end, with- out the toes showing any cracks or the handle taking any permanent set. 21.0 Track Adz— Plan No. 12 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. Test one adz in each lot of 10 dozen or less by subjecting cutting edge to 5 normal blows on metal of the same composition as a railroad spike without breakage or serious nicking. 22.0 Carpenter's Adz— Plan No. 12A Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. No special tests required. 23.0 Double Face Sledge— Plan No. 13 See percussion tools. 14 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 24.0 Tamping Bar — Plan Numbers 14-15 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. No special tests required. 25.0 Tie Plug Driver— Plan No. 16 Material as shown on plan. No special tests required. 26.0 Track Chisels— Plan No. 17 See percussion tools. 27,0 Round Track Punch— Plan No. 19 See percussion tools. 28.0 Track Gage— Plan No. 20 Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 29.0 Track Gage with Wood Rod— Plan No. 20-A Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 30.0 Track Shovel— Plan No. 21 30.1 Scope and Design This specification covers the welded or riveted type and the solid shank type with either wood, malleable iron, combination wood metal, or user approved composition handle tops. Dimension shall conform to plans, which are made part of this specification. A variation of Vi in. more or less from the dimensions shown on the plan for the length of the strap or shank and handle will be allowed. A variation of % in. more or less from the dimensions shown on the plan for the width or length of the blade will be allowed, but the total variation in the overall length of shovels shall not exceed V2 in. more or less of the dimensions shown on the plan. 30.2 Materials Blades shall be of carbon or alloy steel, with a Rockwell (Re) hardness for carbon steel of 45 to 50. Carbon steel blades shall have a thickness of not less than No. 13 gage and alloy blades shall be not less than No. 14 gage U.S. Standard, the gage to be measured at the point where the hardness is taken. For welded or riveted types, the straps shall be welded or riveted to the blade. 30.3 Handles and Tops This specification covers either wood, malleable iron, combination wood metal, or user approved composition handle tops. Wood handles shall be made of ash and shall conform to Grade AA and be in accordance with the general Specifications for Handles for Track Tools. 30.4 Tests One shovel from each lot of 10 dozen or less shall be selected and metal straps (curved to fit the contour of the handle) shall be clamped to the upper and lower parts of the handle, after which the shovel shall be placed in a prying position, supported at the end of the blade by clamps and shall be capable of sustaining a load of 200 lb. suspended from the end for a period of 2 minutes without showing any permanent set, fracture or distortion. Alloy steel shovels which have been given heat treatment to insure uniformity in hardness shall be subject to shock test to insure against brittleness. The test shall be made by forcibly striking the blade of the shovel with a hand hammer at several places when placed on an anvil. Proposed Manual Changes 15 31.0 Ballast Fork— Plan No. 22 31.1 Scope and Design The dimensions shall conform to the plans, which are made part of this specification. The total variation in the overall length of the forks shall not exceed Vi in. more or less of the dimensions shown on plan. 31.2 Material Forks shall be made of high grade carbon steel. Tines of forks shall show Rockwell (Re) har- ness of 35-45. Straps shall be 0.04 U.S. Standard gage steel. 31.3 Handles This specification covers either wood, malleable iron, combination wood metal, or user ap- proved composition handle tops. Wood handles shall be made of ash and shall conform to Grade AA and be in accordance with the general Specifications for Handles for Track Tools. 32.0 Track Tool Handles— Plan No. 25 See Specification For Ash And Hickory Handles For Track Tools for material requirements. No special tests required. 33.0 Scoop— Plan No. 26 33.1 Scope and Design This specification covers the welded or riveted type and the solid shank type with either wood, malleable iron, combination wood metal, or user approved composition handle tops. Dimension shall conform to plans, which are made part of this specification. A variation of Vi in. more or less from the dimensions shown on the plan for the length of the .strap or shank and handle will be allowed. A variation of Vi in. more or less from the dimensions shown on the plan for the width or length of the blade will be allowed, but the total variation in the overall length of scoops shall not exceed '/2 in. more or less of the dimensions shown on the plan. 33.2 Materials Blades shall be of carbon or alloy steel, with a Rockwell (Re) hardness for carbon steel of 45 to 50. Carbon steel blades shall have a thickness of not less than No. 13 gage and alloy blades shall be not less than No. 14 gage U.S. Standard, the gage to be measured at the point where the hardness is taken. For welded or riveted types, the straps shall be welded or riveted to the blade. 33.3 Handles and Tops This specification covers either wood, malleable iron, combination wood metal, or user approved composition handle tops. Wood handles shall be made of ash and shall conform to Grade AA and be in accordance with the general Specifications for Handles for Track Tools. 33.4 Tests One scoop from each lot of 10 dozen or less shall be selected and metal straps (curved to fit the contour of the handle) shall be clamped to the upper and lower parts of the handle, after which the shovel shall be placed in a prying position, supported at the end of the blade by clamps and shall be capable of sustaining a load of 200 lb. suspended from the end for a period of 2 minutes without showing any permanent set, fracture or distortion. Alloy steel scoops which have been given heat treatment to insure uniformity in hardness shall be subject to shock test to insure against brittleness. The test shall be made by forcibly striking the blade of the scoop with a hand hammer at several places when placed on an anvil. 16 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 34.0 Aluminum Track Level And Gage — Plan No. 27 Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 35.0 Scythe— Plan No. 28 No special tests required. 36.0 Snath— Plan No. 29 Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 37.0 Spot Board— Plan No. 30 Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 38.0 Rail Tongs for use with crane — Plan No. 31 Material as shown on plans. In the manufacture of the rail tongs. Section 8.6, Nondestructive Test Requirements will be adhered to. 39.0 Track Spike Lifter— Plan No. 32 See percussion tools. 40.0 Drive Spike Extractor Socket Wrench — Plan No. 33 No special tests required. 41.0 Rail Thermometer— Plan No. 34 Material as shown on plans. No special tests required. 42.0 Nut Cutter— Plan No. 35 See percussion tools. 43.0 Hot Cutter (3 Pound)— Plan No. 36 See percussion tools. 44.0 Hot Cutter (5 Pound)— Plan No. 37 See percussion tools. 45.0 Drift Pin (Short)— Plan No. 38 See percussion tools. 46.0 Drift Pin (Long)— Plan No. 39 See percussion tools. 47.0 Spiking Tool— Plan No. 41 See percussion tools. 48.0 Switch Clip Wrenches— Plan No. 43 Chemical composition for carbon steel as specified in 1.3. If requested by the purchaser, Section 8.6, Nondestructive Test Requirements will be adhered to. Proposed Manual Changes 17 PLANS FOR TRACK TOOLS (1997) Plan Grade of Number Description Steel Hardness 1-62 Clay Pick Carbon or Alloy 425-500 BHN 2-62 Tamping Pick Carbon or Alloy 425-500 BHN 3-83 Spike Maul Alloy 51-55 Re 4-62 Track Wrenches Carbon 375-450 BHN 5-62 Lining Bars Carbon 300-375 BHN 6-62 Rail Tongs Carbon 7-93 Tie Tongs Carbon or Alloy 8-93 Timber Tongs Carbon or Alloy 9-94 Spike Puller Carbon 375-450 BHN 10-97 Rail Fork Carbon 275-350 BHN 11-97 Claw Bar Carbon 300-375 BHN 12-62 *Track Adz Carbon or Alloy 375-450 BHN 12-A-62 *Carpenters Adz Carbon or Alloy 13-83 Double Faced Sledge Alloy 5 1 -55 Re 14-62 Chisel End Tamping Bar Carbon 425-500 BHN 15-62 Spear End Tamping Bar Carbon 425-500 BHN 16-62 Tie Plug Driver Carbon 17-83 Track Chisel Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 19-83 Round Track Punch Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 20-62 Track Gage — Pipe Center See Plan 20-A-62 Track Gage — Wood Center See Plan 21-62 Track Shovels Carbon or Alloy 45-50 Re 22-62 Ballast Forks Carbon 35-45 Re 25-83 Track Tool Handles 26-62 Scoop Carbon or Alloy 45-50 Re 27-80 Aluminum Combination Track Level And Gage (Insulated) 28-62 Scythe See Plan 54-58 Re 29-62 Snath See Plan 30-62 Spot Board See Plan 31-97 Rail Tongs For Use With Crane (Type 1 And 2) See Plan 32-83 Track Spike Lifter Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 44-48 Re (Claw) 33-83 Drive Spike Extractor Socket Wrench Carbon 300-350 BHN 34-71 Rail Thermometer 35-83 Nut Cutter Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 56-60 Re (Point) 36-83 (3 lb.) Hot Cutter Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 56-60 Re (Point) 37-83 (5 lb.) Hot Cutter Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 56-60 Re (Point) 38-83 Drift Pin (Short) Alloy 44-48 Re (Overall) 39-83 Drift Pin (Long) Alloy 44-48 Re (Overall) 41-94 Spiking Tool Alloy 44-48 Re (Head) 52-56 Re (Point) 43-97 Switch Clip Wrench Carbon 375-450 BHN *When specif led, the small eyed track tools will be furnished with AREA handles. The handles are to be properly fitted and wedged. 18 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Page 5-6-27. Insert revised Plan 10, Rail Fork. PLAN 10 - 97 - AREA RAIL FORK Proposed Manual Changes 19 Pase 5-6-28. Insert revised Plan 11, Claw Bar. ^ r r r u [-3'/,-H PLAN 11-97 AREA CLAW BAR 20 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Page 5-6-39. Insert revised Plan 31, AREA Rail Tongs for Use with Cranes (Type 1 and Type 2). . -I SS_i Q- y? X Q. -" u. (E -"IT » L.. —I «< a)< ■< — .fo: .'Ki zi PLAN 31 -97 AREA RAIL TONGS FOR USE WITH CRANES (TYPE 1) Proposed Manual Changes 2 o o :dT^ st:^^ inr -.% i PLAN 31-97 AREA RAIL TONGS FOR USE WITH CRANES (TYPE 2) Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Page 5-6-46. Add new Plan 43, AREA Switch Clip Wrench. 3iywixoaddy ,.yi sz o o l\l UT ?- _) rr m 1. n rr r- m <I 1. 1 , iL <I y _J ■a- (M 0-) (M *— ' (0 (Tl ^ . , , , ^ ri ^ ?^ " - t— LlI _l M t O >-• ■— • OQ cn — t "^ ^^ i -H y i-^ <x ..yi E n T~ ..Vi c PLAN 43 - 97 - AREA SWITCH CLIP WRENCH Specialists In keeping Bridges In service •TIMBER •STEEL •CONCRETE Over 40 years of railroad experience. Inspect. . . Repair. . . Treat. . . Strengthen RAILROAD DIVISION P O Box 8276 • Madison, Wisconsin 53708 608/221-2292 • 800/356-5952 WE'RE THE BRIDGE PRESERVERS URVE CONQU EROI Rocia prestressed concrete ties conquer the curves. They provide a stiffer track modulus, improved lateral stability and gauge control, increased rail life, greater locomotive fuel economy, and significantly lower maintenance costs. Two North American manufacturing plants to serve you. Unsurpassed quality and durability. Go with the leader in North American prestressed concrete ties. Call: uaii: ^^ ^^^t"-:. h-iJ^^^i^^' Concrete Tie, inc. 701 West 48th Avenue • Denver, Colorado 80216 (303) 296-3500 • Fax (303) 297-2255 268 East Scotland Drive • Bear, Delaware 19701 (302) 836-5304 • Fax (302) 836-5458 23 Engineered To Handle Higher Speeds, Tighter Turns And Heavier Loads, Today's Wood Crossties Offer You Superior Cost And Performaince Advantages. Maybe not. Maybe even tougiier wlien you consider ttie tremendous variables that track engineers contend with. Materials with differing physical properties and maintenance needs. Track structures that must stand up to an enormous range of loadings and speeds, for long periods of time, in all types of weather, over all kinds of terrain. Enter yet another factor — high-speed passenger trciffic — and the complexity increases. Fortunately, there is a proven performer you can count on to handle your toughest demands. The treated wood crosstie. Pre-engineered by nature and enhanced by man, the wood crosstie is a marvel of natural science and applied technology. Concrete Cuidence That UJood Is Vour Best Choice. For 150 years, the wood tie has taken everything that man and nature have dished out. Steep grades. Brutal environments. High speeds. Heavier axle loads. Tighter curves. Through it all, resilient wood has been and continues to be the material of choice for durability, economy and strength. No other material matches wood's value on freight and passenger lines. And innovations in hardware, installation methods and wood preservation have taken a good thing and made it even better By improving gage retention. Minimizing maintenance. And increasing tie life. Building track structures is decidedly complex. But choosing the best crosstie isn't exactly "rocket science". Just say wood. m Railway Tie Association Wood crossties. Something to build on. 115 Commerce Drive • Suite C Fayetteville,GA 30214 Phone (770) 460-5553 Fax (770) 460-5573 Proposed Manual Changes 25 Proposed 1997 Manual Revisions to Cliapter 8 — Concrete Structures and Foundations Part 21 — Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures Page 8-21-1. Insert revised Part 21, Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures, including the Effects of Fire in a new Commentary. Part 21 — Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures 21.1 General 21.1.1 All concrete and masonry structures and components should be given thorough, detailed inspections at scheduled intervals. For timber and steel components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively. The depth and detail of the inspection should be based on the condition and age of the structure, and traffic type and tonnage in order to determine that the physical condition of each structure is suitable for the imposed loading. A record of physical conditions should be kept. 21.1.2 A special inspection may be required when the structure is subjected to abnormal con- ditions which may affect the capacity of the structure such as: floods, storms, fires, earthquakes, col- lisions, overloads and evidence of recent movement. Refer to commentary for information related to inspection of fire damaged concrete. 21.1.3 The inspector should review prior inspection reports before making the inspection. Previously noted defects should be examined in the field and any changes in conditions recorded. Field book, sketch pad, inspection form, camera, monitoring gages, etc. should be used to record the inspec- tion data. Appropriate personal safety equipment should be employed throughout the inspection. 21.2 Reporting of Defects 2 1 .2. 1 When the inspector finds defects that appear to be of such a nature as to make the pas- sage of traffic unsafe, the condition should immediately be reported. After steps have been taken to protect traffic, the train dispatcher and appropriate officers should be notified, consistent with estab- lished policies, recommending a speed limit and briefly describing the conditions which prompted the action. The inspector should follow this immediately with a report so that a detailed investigation and recommendation for repair can be made. 21.2.2 Upon completion of the inspection, a written record covering the inspection should be forwarded to the engineer or other officer in charge of maintenance. Upon receipt of the report, a review should be made to determine the need for remedial action. 21.3 Inspection 21.3.1 The inspection of concrete and masonry structures should be carried out in a methodi- cal manner. Of primary importance in all structures is evidence of distress, misalignment, deflection, settlement, cracks, and general deterioration. Evidence of deterioration of concrete such as width and length of structural cracks, size and location of spalling and .scaling, and location and extent of water- saturation of concrete should be recorded. 21.3.2 The inspector should report indications of failure in any portion of the structure and any conditions which could contribute to a future failure. 2 1 .3.3 If practical, the inspector should observe the structure during passage of a train, so that the effects of vibration, sidesway and deflection may be noted. 21.3.4 Reference points should be established for monitoring misalignment, deflection, settle- ment, and cracks. The amount of tilt, separation between components, width and length of cracks, efflo- rescence and rust-staining and other measurements necessary for future checking should be recorded. 26 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 21.3.5 The inspection should include the structure and all related features. The following addi- tional items should be covered in detail. 21.3.5.1 Track The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track on the structure, its approaches and bridge ends. Any irregularities in line or surface should be noted along with their magnitude, location and any other information that may indicate the cause of the irregularities. Depth of ballast and condition of ballast, ties and hardware should be noted. Line swings may be an indi- cation of pier movement. Sags in the track over the structure may indicate settlement. 21.3.5.2 Site and Crossing a) Where a structure cros.ses over a waterway, the inspector should note the condition and alignment of the waterway. The condition of the slopes and any slope protection (such as riprap) should be noted along with any indication of debris accumulation. The inspector should note any indication of damage from marine collision, ice or debris. b) Where scour is possible, the channel bottom at piers and abutments should be checked by sounding, probing or other means. c) Where a structure carries tracks over a roadway or another track, the inspector should note any indication of collision damage from high or wide loads. Roadway clearances should be measured and signage verified for accuracy. 21.3.5.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments a) The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of foundations, piers, abutments or their component parts. Reference points should be established for monitoring of structural movement if appropriate. b) The type of foundation and type and condition of material used in the various structural components should be noted. Location and extent of exposed or corroded reinforcing bars should be reported. The condition of the structure at the bridge seats, bearings and near the waterline should also be investigated. c) Crack width, orientation and location should be noted. Widths and lengths of structural cracks should be marked and dated to monitor crack progression. On masonry structures note cracked, shifted, or missing stones, and condition of mortar. d) Location, size and description of unsound areas, spalling, scaling or other deterioration should be noted. e) Condition of retained fill, drainage and slope protection at abutments should be inspected. Water-saturated masonry or concrete and extent of efflorescence and rust-staining should be noted. Check weepholes and drains for clogging. 21.3.5.4 Pile and Pile Bents a) Inspection of piling and pile bents should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.5.3. For timber and steel components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively. b) Alignment and condition of piling should be recorded. Impact damage from debris, vessels or vehicles should also be noted. c) Condition of piles should be investigated for .soundness. Loss of section and cracking should be noted. These may be especially severe in a marine environment, particularly in the tidal zone. d) Connections between cap and piling should be inspected. e) Bracing members and their connections should be inspected. Proposed Manual Changes 27 21.3.5.5 Underwater Inspections The need and frequency for underwater inspections should be evaluated for every structure hav- ing submerged components. These inspections should identify the channel bottom conditions and presence of any scour, extent of foundation exposure and any undermining, and all deterioration and damage below water. a) Divers should be experienced in the inspection of bridges. b) Inspection data should be recorded by written description, sketches, reports, photography and/or video. c) During high water events when scour conditions may be expected, channel activity should be monitored, which may include the use of sonar readings, until inspections can be made. 21.3.5.6 Retaining Walls a) The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of retaining walls. Changes in wall alignment or cracks in earth embankment which parallel the wall should be noted. b) Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with 21.3.5.3. c) Condition of retained fill and drainage at walls should be inspected. The extent of water-sat- urated concrete and exposed or corroded reinforcing bars should be recorded. 21.3.5.7 Slabs and Beams a) Inspector should note if prestressed or conventionally reinforced concrete is used in the struc- ture. Method of construction, cast-in-place or precast, simple or continuous, should also be indicated. b) Any cracks that open and close under traffic, diagonal cracks near supports, or wide or numerous cracks in any location should be reported immediately to the proper authority. Acute cor- ners of skewed bridges should be examined for cracking. c) Structural members should be inspected for excessive deflection or misalignment. d) Curbs, ballast retainers, walkways and handrails should be inspected, noting the condition as to soundness and security of fastening devices. Soundness, uniformity and condition of bearings and bearing areas should also be noted. Areas exposed to drainage should be checked for spalling and cracking. 21.3.5.8 Box Girders a) Type of box construction (precast, segmental, pre-tensioned, post-tensioned, simple or con- tinuous spans) should be recorded. b) General inspection guidelines should be as outlined in 21.3.5.7. Top flange, bottom flange and web walls should be inspected when accessible. Chamfers of boxes should be inspected for cracking which may extend along the sides or bottom of the girders. c) Shear transfer devices between adjacent box girders should be inspected, where accessible. Condition of grout, hardware, tie rods, and other materials used in tying together adjacent box gird- ers should be noted. Evidence of differential box deflections or misalignments should be recorded. d) Condition of void drain holes and evidence of leakage between adjacent boxes should be noted. 21.3.5.9 Arches a) Type of arch construction, such as segmental, open spandrel, closed spandrel, single or mul- tiple span should be noted. Shape of arch span (circular, elliptical or parabolic) should be recorded, if known. Type and general condition of material (brick, stone, mortar or concrete) should also be recorded. Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association b) Arch foundations should be investigated for settlement, shifting, scour and undermining. c) Arch ribs and bearing areas of arches at springings should be inspected for loss of cross sec- tion due to spalling or cracking. d) Open spandrel columns should be inspected with particular attention to areas near the inter- face with the arch rib and cap. e) Arch ribs connected with .struts should be inspected for diagonal cracking due to torsional shear. f) Floor systems of open spandrel arches and closed spandrel arches with no till material should be inspected as outlined in 21 .3.3.7. g) Inspect areas exposed to drainage and seepage for deteriorated and contaminated areas. For closed spandrel arches, note if weepholes are working properly. 21.3.5.10 Structural Protection Structural protection devices including crash walls, cellular dolphins, pile clusters, sheer fences, floating sheer booms, anchored pontoons, fender systems, navigation lights and warning mechanisms should be inspected as part of the scheduled inspection of their related foundation or substructure ele- ment. The inspection should identify all deterioration, damage, displacement, misalignment, insta- bility, and any other detrimental conditions which would inhibit these devices from protecting the structure or cause them to create an obstruction. All submerged portions of structural protection devices should be inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.5.5. The inspection of structural protection devices should also note any aspects which may present a haz- ard to navigation, and identify the necessary measures to correct the situation. 21.3.5.11 Culverts a) Inspector should note any settlement, variations in cross-sectional shape and misalignment along the horizontal axis of a culvert. All joints between end treatments and within the culvert itself should be examined for differential movement, and all transverse or longitudinal cracking within a culvert should be noted. Look for holes appearing in the track structure as an indication of open cul- vert joints. b) A culvert should be inspected for any scour or undermining at either end. Any embankment damage around the culvert openings and debris or vegetation within the culvert should be noted. All submerged portions of a culvert should be inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.5.5. c) Inspection of a concrete or masonry culvert in general should be in conformance with Article 21.3.5.3 21.3.5.12 l\innels a) Important features of a tunnel might be obscured by a shield or lining, therefore the inspec- tor should review plans, if available, prior to the inspection. Note the structural configuration, provi- sions for drainage, ventilation and lighting. Note if secondary passageways that would provide addi- tional access for inspection are present. b) Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with 2 1 .3.5.3. In exposed masonry con- struction, make special note of bulges in walls and displacement, shifting or loss of masonry or mortar. c) Walls should be inspected for indications of water leakage or ice buildup. The condition and effectiveness of drainage systems should be noted. d) Note whether ancillary systems for lighting, ventilation, and fire prevention are in working order, if discernible. Proposed Manual Changes 29 e) The accumulation of trash or foreign debris or the blockage of safety niches should be noted. 0 Any new construction above or adjacent to the tunnel should be noted. g) Horizontal and vertical clearances should be verified. Items causing changes in clearance should be noted. h) The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track and clearance of the tunnel. 21.3.6 Bibliography Bridge Inspection Seminar Manual, American Railway Bridge and Building Association, Atlanta, Georgia, February 22-24, 1993. Bridge Inspector's Training ManuaI/90, FHWA-PD-9I-0I5, U.S. Department of Transporta- tion, Federal Highway Administration, May, 1991 Underwater Inspection of Bridges, FHWA-DP-80- 1 , Federal Highway Administration, Novem- ber, 1989. Part 21 -Commentary Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures C21.1.2 Guidelines for Evaluating Fire Damaged Concrete Railway Bridges C21. 1.2.1 General Concrete structures exposed to fire may experience a permanent loss of strength, formation of structural cracks, surface spalling, and reinforcing damage. However, concrete structures exposed to fire generally perform well and usually are repairable. The heat conductivity of concrete is low and thus heat from a fire is usually confined to shallow depths. The extent of structural damage is related to the intensity and duration of the fire, and the mass and details of the concrete structure. The exposure of concrete to a temperature of 300°C (572°F) is significant for two reasons: • Below this temperature the effects of heat on concrete are likely to be insignificant. • Above this temperature concrete coloration changes may indicate permanent damage. Water directed on hot concrete may cause spalling, crack developinent and the embrittlement of steel. Fire fighting efforts should be directed to extinguishing the combustible material and not cooling the structure. Traffic should not cross the structure if significant deflection or distortion is noted or if there are reasons to doubt that adequate strength remains. C21. 1.2.2 Inspection Prior to the inspection of a damaged concrete structure, it should be determined whether the site is safe for entry. Damage may include the deflection of concrete beams and slabs, di.stortion of columns, crack- ing, spalling and un.sightly appearance. Inspection observations should include looking for and measuring any unusual component deflection, recording the location and extent of structural cracks, spalls and exposed reinforcing. Fire exposed surfaces should be mapped to indicate those areas having structural and cosmetic damage. If fire exposed surfaces exhibit colorations of pink, white or buff, those surfaces should be mapped and color noted. Surfaces may need to be cleaned of soot to make these observations. 30 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Information concerning the combustible material, duration, intensity indicators and method for extinguishing should be obtained from eyewitnesses or other reliable sources for assistance in eval- uating the damage. Although any concrete coloration from the fire may provide sufficient informa- tion concerning the intensity of the fire, if coloration is not evident, to a lesser degree other materi- als associated with the fire site may have melted and may provide some indication of the fire intensity; such as: lead 327°C (62 IT), plastics 300-450°C (572-842°F), glass 400-500°C (752-932°F), aluminum 660°C (I2I8°F) and copper 1083°C (IQSTF). Other information concerning the original concrete strength, age, reinforcing details and types of aggregates may be obtained from structural plans, specifications and construction records. C21. 1.2.3 Evaluation Generally, all concrete that has coloration changes (pink, white, bufO is considered damaged. The pink coloration 300°C (572°F) experienced by heating concrete is the formation of ferrous salts and is more pronounced in concrete with siliceous aggregates. At approximately 600°C (IIIOT), concrete may have a whitish coloration from the hydration of lime. At 900°C (1650°F) the coloration may be grey-buff. Indications of possible structural damage may be evident by visual examination, but the extent of damage will require tests and analysis. Evaluation tools for testing include: surface hammer sound- ing, impact hammers, coring and/or drilling and pulse-echo non-destructive testing. Sounding the concrete surface with hammers may be sufficient to determine if there is any internal concrete delam- ination. Calibrated impact hammers can give direct measurements of the concrete compressive strength and may be used on sound and unsound concrete for quick strength comparisons. Coring will assist in determining the depth of damage and corings destructively tested will ascertain accurate compressive strength. A petrographic analysis of cored samples will give a detailed analysis of the concrete condition but the analysis is time consuming. Pulse-echo testing can give a rapid and accu- rate determination of internal concrete conditions relative to micro-cracking and bond loss. Additional testing may be needed for prestressed and post-tensioned concrete. Concrete strength decreases as temperature is increased and further decreases on cooling as a result of micro-cracking. Approximately 75% residual strength remains in most concrete after expo- sure to fire. This loss may be offset by excess residual strength of mature concrete. Internal induced stresses from differential heating may result in the formation of cracks. Young concrete may experi- ence more damage than mature concrete due to larger amounts of internal moisture that may convert to steam and increase internal tensile stresses. Damage may result from aggregate spalls due to physical or chemical changes. Explosive spalling may occur from the release of tensile stresses by the formation of steam within aggregates. Slough-off or the detachment of layers of concrete may occur where reinforcement is restrained. Igneous aggregates (granite, basalt) generally perform well when exposed to fire, carbonate aggre- gates (limestone) perform well to about 700°C ( 1290°F), and siliceous aggregates (quartz) do not per- form well due to expansion and cracking. The absence of deflection or distortion in any element may indicate that the steel was not damaged. Reinforcing steel usually recovers in strength unless exposed to temperatures over 600°C (lllOT). Anchorages of post-tensioned members may require special evaluation. The tension in pretensioned steel or post-tensioned ducts exposed by spalling should generally be assumed to be zero. Prestressed mem- bers may suffer substantial relaxation losses, additional to those allowed by normal design. Low relax- ation strands may have improved fire performance. At 300°C (572°F) the residual bond strength is approximately 85% and at 500°C (932°F) the bond strength is approximately 50% of initial bond. Bond strength losses of epoxy coated reinforcing steel subjected to fire may require special evaluation. Resins used in construction bonding of concrete elements and in repairs may not perform well in the presence of elevated temperatures. Proposed Manual Changes 3 1 Hydrochloric acid fumes occurring in fires involving PVC and other plastic ducts may react with hardened cement paste to form calcium chloride which may constitute a hazard to the rein- forcement. A silver/chromate test can confirm the presence of calcium chloride ions. C21.1.2.4 Repairs Repair procedures, as applicable, are outlined in Part 14. Pulse-echo or other non-destructive testing may be used to confirm that all damaged concrete is removed and can be u.sed to confirm proper bonding of new concrete to old concrete and bonding to reinforcement. C21.1.2.5 Bibliography Evaluation and Repair of Fire Damage to Concrete, AC! SP-92, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan. 1986 Fire Safety of Concrete Structures, ACI SP-80, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1983 Guide for Determining the Fire Endurance of Concrete Elements, ACI216R-89, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1989 Reinforced Concrete Fire Resistance, CRSl Engineering Practice Committee, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, Illinois, 1980. C21.3.1 Inspection — Commentary There are many common defects that occur on concrete bridges. The following definitions are provided as a guideline for consistency in reporting of defects. Abrasion — Abrasion damage is the result of external forces acting on the surface of the con- crete member. Erosive action of silt-laden water running over a concrete surface and ice flow in rivers and streams can cause considerable abrasion damage to concrete. Cold joint displacement or deterioration — Unbonded concrete resulting from intended sepa- rate concrete placement or by lack of consolidation. Cracking — A crack is a linear fracture that may extend partially or completely through the con- crete member. When recording cracks, the inspector should describe the type, width, depth, length, direction, location and appearance of the crack as appropriate for the inspection. Delamination — Delamination occurs when layers of concrete .separate at or near the level of the top or outermost layer of reinforcing steel. The major cause of delamination is expansion of cor- roding reinforcing steel. Delaminated areas can generally be identified by a hollow sound when tapped with a hammer. Efflorescence — Efflorescence is a white deposit on concrete cau.sed by crystallization of solu- ble salts (calcium chloride) brought to the surface by moisture in the concrete. Honeycombs — Honeycombs are hollow spaces or voids that may be present within the con- crete. Honeycombs are caused by improper consolidation dunng construction, resulting in the segre- gation of the coarse aggregates from the fine aggregates and cement paste. Pop-Outs — Pop-outs are conical fragments that break out of the surface of the concrete leav- ing small holes. Generally, a shattered aggregate particle will be found at the bottom of the hole, with a part of the fragment still adhering to the small end of the pop-out cone. Scaling — Scaling is the gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. When reporting scaling, the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of penetration of the defect. 32 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Spalling — A spall is a roughly circular or oval depression in the concrete. Spalls result from the separation and removal of a portion of the surface concrete, revealing a fracture roughly parallel to the surface. Spalls can be caused by corroding reinforcement and friction from thermal movement. Reinforcing steel is often exposed. When reporting spalls, the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of the defect. C21.3,5.2 Site and Crossing — Commentary The inspector should note any changes in the alignment of a waterway both upstream and downstream and the resulting effect that they may have on the structure. A major change in the align- ment of a waterway may place it outside the spans intended for the crossing. Sedimentation deposits may fill scour holes after high water events. Underwater investigations may be required as per €21. 3. 5. 5. Structures located downstream of spillways or locks may be subject to increased scour potential. C21.3.5.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments — Commentary Concrete and masonry structures are placed on foundations of earth, piling, cribbing, rock or other similar material. Cracks may be evidence of settlement which has occurred during consolida- tion of the foundation. Settlement may occur without cracking. Noticeable changes in track surfaces and alignment, plumbness or elevation may indicate foundation settlement. Changes in backwall alignment or cracks in the earth embankment parallel to the backwall may indicate movement. Constant wetting may indicate swelling, premature loss of mortar, deterioration of facing or exces- sive water pressure behind backwalls. Exposure of timber mats or untreated timber piling may lead to rapid deterioration of the timber. C21.3.5.5 Underwater Inspections — Commentary In evaluating the need for an underwater inspection, consideration should be given to type and depth of foundation, depth of water, normal and peak flow rates, nature of channel bottom and sus- ceptibility to and history of scour, type of aquatic environment, typical extent of drift and ice accu- mulation, and amount and type of watercraft traffic. The inspections should be performed with suf- ficient frequency to provide early detection of any detrimental conditions, and between inspections, the measuring of water depths should be considered to monitor channel bottom activity. In the event of a high water and/or flow occurrence, an excessive accumulation of ice or drift, a watercraft colli- sion, a significant change in channel bottom configuration, or any submerged component movement, consideration should be given to performing an emergency inspection as soon as conditions will safely permit. C2 1.3.5.6 Retaining Walls — Commentary In addition to structural deficiencies, retaining wall failures may result from: (1) Softening of the supporting material by moisture. (2) Overloading of the embankment behind the wall. (3) Scour or erosion beneath the foundation. (4) Expansive backfills. (5) Hydrostatic pressure behind wall. Cracks in the earth embankment which parallel the wall may be signs of wall movement. C21.3.5.7 Slabs and Beams — Commentary b) Transverse cracks in the bottom of simple span slabs and beams can indicate overload, par- ticularly if cracks open and close during passage of a train. Hairline cracks on the tops of simple span Proposed Manual Changes 33 prestressed beams are generally due to shrinkage of the concrete. Hairline cracks in the top or bot- tom of simple span reinforced concrete slabs and beams are generally not significant. Diagonal cracks running up the sides of the slab or beam from near the supports may indicate excessive shear stress in the member or the beginning of shear failure. Transverse cracks in the top of continuous beams over support locations or in the bottom of continuous beams within the span can indicate overload. c) Sagging or excess deflection may indicate a loss of prestress. Loss of prestress may be caused by strand slippage, which may be visible at the ends of beams. d) End spalling can lead to a loss of bond in the prestressing tendons. Note any deterioration that has exposed or damaged prestressing tendons. C21. 3.5.8 Box Girders — Commentary b) Horizontal or vertical cracks in the top of girder ends are probably due to stresses created at the transfer of prestressing forces. Flexural cracks in the lower portion of the girders, particularly at mid-span, may indicate a problem resulting from overload or loss of prestress. c) Individual girder deflection under live load may indicate shear keys between boxes have been broken and that boxes are acting independently of each other. C21.3.5.9 Arches — Commentary a) A true arch has an elliptical shape and functions in a state of pure compression. Many arches are not elliptical and resist loads by a combination of axial compression and bending moment. c) Changes in alignment, sags in the arch crown, bulges in the sidewalls, transverse and longi- tudinal cracks and expansion joint failures may be signs of settlement, overload or impending arch failure. d) The area between the arches and the deck is called the spandrel. Open spandrel concrete arches receive traffic loads through spandrel bents which support a slab or tee beam floor system. Horizontal cracks in spandrel columns within several feet of the arch indicate excessive bending in the column, which may be caused by overloads and differential arch rib deflection. g) The spandrel area in closed spandrel arches is typically occupied by fill retained by vertical walls. Surface water should drain properly and not penetrate the fill material. C21.3.5.11 Culverts — Commentary a) Horizontal alignment of a culvert can be inspected by sighting along one of the culvert walls. Sag in the culvert axis may be identified by a location of sediment build-up on the culvert floor. Spalls or cracking in the vicinity of a joint may be a sign of movement at the joint. Both longitudi- nal and transverse cracking may be an indication of differential settlement. Longitudinal cracks can also be caused by a structural overloading of the culvert. b) Insufficient hydraulic capacity, either by design or due to obstructions, may cause upstream ponding and lateral flow movements which can erode the embankments and supporting material around the culvert end treatments. Culverts often convey short-term, high volume flows, and conse- quently, all culverts should be carefully inspected for scour and undermining. Tipping, cracking or separation of the headwalls, wingwalls or apron may indicate the presence of undermining. For arch and frame type culverts with earthen floors, undermining beneath the wall foundations along their full length should also be investigated. Recognized throughout the industry. . . For all the wood products and service you depend on. Companies like yours — whether Class I, regional, short line or transit railroads or contractors — have been ordering wood products from Burke-Parsons-Bowlby for more than 30 years. That's a good sign BPB delivers the quality products and flexible service you can depend on. BPB offers the broadest wood product lines in the industry, in- cluding: crossties; switch ties; tie plugs; highway grade crossings; bridge timbers; paneled bridge decks; and more. With plants located in Virginia, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Kentucky, BPB has the capacity to fill your daily and emergency product needs. Our own trucking subsidiary. Timber Trucking, allows us to deliver your order right on schedule. Today we're providing all the wood prod- ucts you depend on and developing the ones you'll need for tomorrow. Quality products, service, inno- vation, our commitment to you and the future of railroading. Get BPB's wood products and prompt delivery on track for your operation. Call 1-800-BPB-TIES (1-800-272-8437). Bt h The Burke-Farsons-Bowlby Corporation P.O. Box 231, Ripley, WV 25271 (304) 372-2211 34 Proposed Manual Changes 35 Part 24— Drilled Shaft Foundations Page 8-24-2. Insert revised Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, as follows. 24.1 General 24.1.2 Scope This specification covers the description and general aspects of design, installation, inspection and testing of drilled shafts, also frequently referred to as drilled caissons, drilled piers, or bored piles. This specification is intended to serve as guidelines in developing specific designs and con- struction specifications on a project basis. For the purpo.se of this specification, the minimum diameter of these units shall be 30 inches (0.75 meter). Drilled shafts with smaller diameters have been constructed, but are not included in this specification. This specification relates primarily to single vertical drilled shafts. Factors to be used in modifying the capacities of single drilled shafts for determination of the capacity of a group of drilled shafts which support a common rigid cap are included elsewhere in this specification. The use of battered drilled shafts to accommodate lateral loads by the horizontal component of the shaft axial resistance is not recommended and is not addressed by this .specification. Lateral loads applied to drilled shafts are to be resisted by the effect of soil/rock interaction between the shaft and ground. 24.1.2 Purpose and Necessity Drilled shafts are used to transmit loads through soils of poor bearing capacity into rock or soil formations having adequate bearing capacity. Generally, single drilled shafts have load capacities much larger than piling due to their larger size and capability of belling to increase the bearing area without enlarging either the footing or the drilled shaft. The selection of foundation treatment for a given site should be determined by subsurface con- ditions, and by economic considerations as there is often a choice of several types of foundations for a structure. 24.1.3 Definitions (see Figure I) Drilled Shaft — A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without .steel reinforcing, for the purpose of transferring structural loads to bearing .strata below the structure. Protective Casing — Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape lowered into the excava- tion to protect workmen and inspectors from collapse or cave-in of the side wall. Bell or Underream — An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excava- tion or mechanical underreaming with drilling equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area. Socket — A shaft of equal or smaller diameter extended into the bearing material. Toe — Vertical section at bottom of bell. Permanent Casing — A steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It is used as a form to contain concrete placed for the drilled shaft and remains in place. Rd'crcncc. Vol. »5. iy84. p.2y. Latest page con.sisl: I to X. incl. ( iyX4). 36 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association NOMINAL SHAFT DIAMETER (B I J 1 r] CASING 60* MIN -REINFORCING STEEL BELL DIAMETER SOCKET DIAMETER OPTIONAL SOCKET 1. FIGURE IS FOR ILLUSTRATIVE DEFINITION OF DRILLED SHAFT NOMENCLATURE 2 THE NEED FOR OR EXTENT OF CASING IS DEPENDENT ON LOCAL SOIL AND GROUND WATER CONDITIONS. 3. THE NEED FOR AND EXTENT OF REIN- FORCING STEEL SHALL BE AS SPECIFIED BY THE DESIGN ENGINEER. Figure 1 Drilled Shaft Temporary Casing— A steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It may also be used as a form for the shaft concrete but is withdrawn as the shaft concrete is placed. 24.1.4 Design Loads Loading for drilled shafts shall be the design loads from the supported structure without applica- tion of load factors used for Load Factor design procedure. Design loads shall include the following: Proposed Manual Changes 37 Primary Forces: Dead Load Live Load Centrifugal Force Earth Pressure Buoyancy Negative Soil Friction Secondary Forces (Occasional): Wind and Other Lateral Forces Ice and Stream Flow Longitudinal Forces Seismic Forces When drilled shaft foundations are designed for both primary and secondary forces, the allowable load on the drilled shafts may be increased by 23 percent, provided that the size or number of drilled shafts is not less than that required for primary forces alone. In soils where downward movements of surrounding soil relative to the drilled shaft are expected to occur, axial loads shall include negative soil friction forces, acting downward on the drilled shaft. Under special conditions swelling soils can pro- duce upward forces, with fluctuation of the water table, which should also be considered in design. 24.2 Information Required 24.2.1 Field Survey Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profile and cross sections to determine general design and structural requirements. The location of overhead and underground utilities, exist- ing foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall be indicated. Records pertaining to high and low water levels and depth of scour shall be provided for stream crossings. 24.2.2 Subsurface Investigation Foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Chapter 8, Part 22, Geotechincal Subsurface Investigation, in order to determine soil or rock properties, ground water elevations, and any other pertinent conditions. Where a large portion of the required shaft capacity is to be generated from tip resistance of the shaft or rock .socket, the geotechnical investigation shall be of sufficient scope to permit the deter- mination that the .strata in which the tip is founded is of sufficient depth and .strength to carry the loads to which it is subjected. Reference is also made to Chapter 8, Part 4.3.1, for additional information. 24.3 Design 24.3.1 General The design is divided into three basic parts: ( 1 ) transfer of load from the drilled shaft to the rock and/or soil bearing strata; (2) the drilled shaft itself; and (3) the connection between the supported structure and the drilled shaft. 24.3.2 The transfer of Load from the Drilled Shaft to the Rock or Soil Bearing strata. 24.3.2.1 Drilled shafts transfer load to the bearing strata as follows: a. An end bearing-type drilled shaft transfers essentially all of its load through weaker soils to a layer of soil or rock with adequate bearing capacity. b. A friction-type shaft whereby the drilled shaft load is transferred to the surrounding material primarily through friction between the shaft wall and the adjacent material. 38 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association c. A combination end bearing and friction-type drilled shaft is a shaft in which some of the load is transferred into the stratum by soil friction and the remainder by end bearing. 24.3.2.2 Lateral Loads and Moinent: When the drilled shaft is subjected to lateral load and moments, as well as axial load, the distribution of soil pressures and the variation of moments and shear in the shaft must be determined. 24.3.2.3 Belled Shafts: Where the bearing strata has insufficient strength to support the load on the ba.se of the shaft, the shaft bottom may be enlarged by belling or underreaming to reduce the pressure by distributing the load over a greater area. Belled shafts shall be used only where the soil/rock in which the bell is placed will not collapse due to the underreaming. Bells are normally unreinforced. The base diam- eter of the bell shall not exceed three times the shaft diameter and the sides shall not be less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. The toe height of bottom edge shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm). 24.3.2.4 The uhimate axial capacity of a drilled shaft (Q^,,) shall be based on the summation of the ultimate shaft tip capacity and ultimate side resistance capacity minus the weight of the shaft. The allowable shaft capacity shall be the ultimate capacity divided by a factor of safety. The ultimate shaft tip capacity (Q,) shall be Q^ = qr • A^, where qr is the ultimate unit soil tip resistance determined by geotechnical analysis and A^ is the area of the shaft tip. The ultimate side resistance (Q,) of the shaft shall be equal to the circumference of the shaft multiplied by the embedment length in a soil layer of uniform unit side resistance (qs) multiplied by qs. The value(s) of qs shall be determined by geotechnical analysis. Where a shaft passes through stratified soil having different values of qs for the various soil type layers, the value of Qs shall be the shaft circumference multiplied by the summation of various q^ values multiplied by the depth of the respective layer. In general, the top five feet of an embedded shaft and a bottom length equal to the diameter of the shaft tip or perimeter of the bell shall be considered as non-contributing to the side resistance of the shaft. Where the drilled shaft is located in scour susceptible areas, the probable depth of scour shall also be deducted when calculating the ultimate shaft side resistance. Where rock sockets having a diameter equal to or less than the nominal diameter of the shaft are used, the ultimate tip capacity of the shaft shall be equal to the area of the socket tip multiplied by the uniaxial ultimate unit rock capacity. The ultimate socket side resistance shall be the product of the socket circumference, socket embedment and ultimate unit side shear resistance along the socket/rock interface. Unless an analysis is used which accounts for the load/deflection relationship of the various soil or rock strata encountered, the ultimate capacity of a drilled shaft which utilizes a rock socket shall be based on the sum of the ultimate tip and side resistance capacities of the rock socket only, neglect- ing nominal capacities of the shaft in the soil overburden. 24.3.2.5 Uplift Capacity: The ultimate uplift capacity of a drilled shaft shall be equal to or less than the weight of the shaft plus 0.7 times the ultimate side resistance of the shaft. If belled, the uplift capacity of the shaft may be increased by taking into consideration the reinforcement details of the shaft and bell together with the strength characteristics of the adjacent material. 24.3.2.6 Factors of Safety: For drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock, a minimum design fac- tor of safety of 2.5 shall be used against bearing capacity failure. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used when designing for conditions which produce uplift. 24.3.2.7 Shafts Under Water: Wherever practicable, the drilled shaft shall be designed to per- mit the placing of the concrete in the dry, and for visual inspection of the hole, the bearing strata, and the rock socket. When it is impractical to dewater the excavation for rock-socketed shafts, the concrete may be placed under water by means of a tremie or pumped concrete and appropriate allowances made in the concrete mix design. The water level shall have reached a static condition before concrete placement begins. Proposed Manual Changes 39 When concrete cannot be placed in the dry and a thorough visual inspection cannot be made by television or by divers, the Design Engineer shall reduce the allowable bearing and side resistance stress appropriately. Any free water in belled shafts shall be removed by pumping or bailing, and the bottom rein- spected before placing concrete in the dry. 24.3.3 The Drilled Shaft 24.3.3.1 The drilled shaft is generally designed as a short column for axial loads due to the lat- eral support provided by the soil/rock. In muck or water, slenderness effects of the column must be taken into consideration. When the drilled shaft is subjected to moment and lateral forces at the connection to the sup- ported structure, the shaft must be designed for bending and shear in addition to axial force. Moment and shear along the length of the shaft must be calculated, and adequate reinforcement provided. 24.3.3.2 The shaft shall satisfy the design requirements of part 2 of this Chapter. 24.3.4 Connection Between Supported Structure and Drilled Shaft The connection between the drilled shaft and the supported structure (parts above the top of shaft) shall be capable of transferring the design loads, including direct load, shear and moment. This can be accomplished by the following means: a. When the supported structure at the top of shaft is of concrete, the reinforcing steel cage shall be extended into the cap so that the load is transferred into the reinforcing steel of the drilled shaft by bond and into the concrete by compression. b. When the cap section is a steel element, appropriate design shall be developed to transmit all loads, conforming to the requirements of Chapter 15, Part 1 or 2. 24.3.5 Group Action of Drilled Shafts Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects of negative soil friction (if any) are neg- ligible. 24.3.5.1 Cohesive Soil: Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts. If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual capacity of each shaft having a diameter B should be reduced to a reduction factor times Qt for an isolated shaft. This factor equals 0.67 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 68. For intermediate spacings, the reduction factor may be determined by lin- ear interpolation. The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser of: 1 ) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or 2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the perimeter area of the group. For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ground Q„„ may be computed as the lesser of: 1) the sum of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or 2) the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above. For the equivalent pier, the shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor to deter- mine the Q, component of Q^,, the total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine the Q, component of Q„|, and the additional capacity of the cap shall be ignored. 24.3.5.2 Cohesionless Soil: Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless .soil .shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of cap contract with the ground, the indi- 40 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association vidual capacity of each shaft should be reduced to a reduction factor times Qj for an isolated shaft. This factor equals 0.67 or a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 88. For intermediate spacings, the reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may be computed as the lesser of: 1) the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or 2) the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, including resistance over the entire perimeter and base areas. 24.3.5.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil: If a group of shafts which is embedded in a strong soil deposit overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohesive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential for large settlements in the weaker layer. 24.4 Material 24.4.1 Concrete Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, concrete shall be produced and place in accor- dance with Part 1 of this chapter. Concrete shall have a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 megapascals) in 28 days. Approved additives, such as set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement shall be not be less than 4 inches (100 mm), and not more than 6 inches ( 1 50 mm). If temporary casing is to be used, the slump should be not less than 5 inches (125 mm), and a set retarder may be necessary. 24.4.2 Reinforcing Steel Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, any required reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this chapter. 24.4.3 Steel Casing Material If the steel casing is relied upon as a structural element, the steel casing material shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A252. 24.5 Construction 24.5.1 Contractor Qualifications Drilled shafts shall be installed by the Owner with experienced personnel, or by a Contractor or Subcontractor who specializes in such work. Availability of all required special equipment, tools, and experienced personnel are important items to be considered when determining Owner installa- tion or selecting an installation contractor. 24.5.2 Shaft Excavation When excavating a drilled shaft, earth walls shall be adequately and securely protected against cave-in, subsidence and/or displacement of surrounding earth, and for the exclusion of ground water by means of temporary or permanent steel casings. Whenever personnel are required to enter the shaft, a protective casing shall be used and there shall be adequate provisions for fresh air, light and protection from falling objects and toxic gases. Operation of harmful gas-producing equipment in the shaft must be prohibited. Rock grapples or special tools for removal of boulders or other obstructions must be readily available for use. Blasting will be permitted only upon obtaining written approval from the Engineer. Inspection of the shaft base, and any socket, by a qualified inspector is highly recommended and should be omitted only with the approval of the Engineer. Proposed Manual Changes 4 1 No shaft excavation shall be made within 15 feet (4.5 meters) of an uncased shaft filled with concrete that is less than one day old. The construction procedure used shall be approved by the Engineer in charge before commencing work. 24.5.3 Casing Where called for, permanent steel casing shall be installed to the plan elevation or to the eleva- tion designated by the Engineer in the field. When the top of the drilled shaft is below the surface of the ground, installation of additional large diameter casing may be required to extend above the work- ing level to minimize possibility of foreign materials or water entering the top of the shaft. Casings shall be of adequate size and thickness to safely retain the adjacent earth materials and water form entering the shaft excavation, without exceeding allowable steel stresses, distortion, or collapse of the casing. A protective casing is also to be provided, where required, to serve as protection for personnel entering the shaft excavations not provided with casings as specified above. Casing size and thickness shall meet the requirements stated above. The outside diameter of the protective casing shall be as large as possible, yet small enough to be lowered and removed without damage to the sides of the shaft. If conditions are such that casing withdrawal will cause dislocation of the reinforcing steel or permit sloughing soils to enter the shaft, a double casing should be used. By this method, the shaft is drilled oversize and a temporary casing installed. A light gage permanent inner casing the same size as the required shaft diameter is then installed. This inner casing shall be of sufficient strength to serve as a form for the concrete shaft but need not be designed for soil pressure. Concrete is then placed within the permanent inner casing. After the concrete has set, the annular space between the permanent casing and surrounding soil is filled with grout, lean concrete, sand or by other approved method and the temporary outer casing is withdrawn. 24.5.4 Bells or Underreams Before belling, the Engineer shall determine that the formation encountered at the plan eleva- tion is adequate. When shafts are required to be belled, the bells shall be formed either by hand or use of special belling equipment to the angle and slope called for on the drawings. The bottoms of bells shall be thoroughly cleaned of all loose materials and inspected before the concrete is placed. 24.5.5 Sockets When sockets are required, they shall be formed by machine or by hand to the proper size and depth called for in the plans. Sides and bottom of sockets must be thoroughly cleaned of all loose material since the bond of the concrete to the socket sides is used in design. 24.5.6 Tolerances The center of the top of each shaft shall not vary form its design location by more than '/:4 of the shaft diameter, or 3 inches (75 mm), whichever is less, and the shaft shall not be out of plumb by more than 1.5 percent of the length not exceeding 12.5 percent of shaft diameter, whichever is less. 24.5.7 Dewatering Suitable dewatering procedures shall be as agreed upon between the Engineer and Contractor as determined at such time as conditions warrant. Unless otherwi.se agreed, the shaft at the time of placement of .steel reinforcing cage, if any, and concrete shall be essentially free of standing water in excess of two inches (50 mm) deep. 24.5.8 Inspection Immediately prior to placement of any required reinforcement or concrete, each shaft shall be thoroughly inspected as directed by the Engineer to ascertain that the shaft has been properly pre- pared, that the bearing material is compatible with design requirements, and whether additional 42 Bulletin 760 — -American Railway Engineering Association investigation of the bottom is required. If conditions vary from the assumed conditions determined by the borings, additional investigation shall be conducted as directed by the Engineer 24.5.9 Placing Steel When reinforcing steel is specified, it shall be prefabricated and placed as a unit immediately prior to concrete operations. In order to minimize displacement of reinforcing steel cage when cas- ing is pulled, the cage may be reinforced below the zone of significant bending moment by welding horizontal bands to the cage at about five-foot (one and one-half meters) intervals. 24.5.10 Placing Concrete Dry Hole — Prevent segregation of concrete through use of tube, sectionalized pipe or other means to direct the free fall of concrete so that it does not strike the sides of reinforcement in the shaft. Under Water — Utilize a tremie or pumped concrete in accordance with Chapter 8, Part 1, Article 1.14.10 and Part 24, Article 24.3.2.7. Rodding or mechanical vibrating is necessary only for the top five feet (one and one-half meters) of shaft. Any special requirements for concrete placement shall be approved by the Engineer. 24.5.11 Casing Removal In situations where temporary casing is to be removed, the head of concrete inside the casing must be adequate to preclude infiltration of water and sluffage of the shaft face and sides. Elapsed time from beginning of concrete placement in cased portion of shaft, until extraction of casing is begun, shall not exceed one hour. Extreme care shall be taken when a casing is removed to prevent subsidence of the surround- ing ground if this condition is critical due to the presence of surrounding structures or utilities. Elevation of top of the steel cage should be carefully checked before and after casing extrac- tion. The top of the concrete shall not raise during extraction of the casing. The exterior temporary casing, if a double -cased shaft, shall not be removed until three (3) days after the shaft is poured. 24.5.12 Continuity of Work Drilled shaft construction work shall be planned so that all required operations proceed in a continuous manner until the shaft is complete. A precise time schedule agreement between the Contractor and the Engineer should be established. Provision shall be made for protecting the shaft and adjacent construction in case of unforeseen interruptions. Such provisions shall be approved by the Engineer before drilling begins. 24.5.13 Records An accurate record shall be kept of each drilled shaft as installed. The record shall show the top and bottom elevations, shaft and bell diameters, depths of test holes if required, date the shaft is exca- vated, inspection report of the bearing stratum, depth of water in excavation at time of placing steel and concrete, quantity of concrete placed compared with theoretical quantity, and any other pertinent data. Records shall be made and signed by both the project superintendent and inspector and distrib- uted to proper authorities daily. 24.6 Testing Materials used in construction of drilled shafts should be sampled and tested as specified else- where in Chapter 8. At least two (2) concrete test cylinders shall be taken for each shaft. Further testing of the shafts may be required by the Engineer in order to determine the quality of the concrete by coring of the bearing capacity of the shaft, by test loading. Connect with Parker for all your hose and fittings needs. 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Table Of Contents Section Page 4. 1 Introduction 4.2 Car Distribution 4.3 Trains 4.4 Train Management 4.5 Communications 4.6 Defect Detection 4.7 Line Capacity 4.8 Terminals 4.1 Introduction The basic railway operation is to provide a transportation service by moving goods and people from one place to another This transportation service should be done safely and efficiently. Goods or products are hauled in freight cars. Some cars are specifically designed for particular commodities, such as tank cars for liquids, auto-rack cars for automobiles and trucks, and stack cars for containers. Passenger cars are designed to carry people, and include such variations as coaches, sleeping cars, diners and lounge cars. For efficiency, cars are assembled into freight or passenger trains so that coupled units of motive power can move many individual cars, as required to meet specific transportation needs. For a general description of railway operations, see "The Railroad: What It Is and What It Does," by John H. Armstrong, .^rd Edition. 1990, Simmons-Boardman Books, Inc., Omaha, NE. Also, federal regulations have operational and maintenance impacts on railways. See Title 49 Code of Federal Regulations, Transportation. Of special interest is Subchapter C- Hazardous Materials Regulations, Parts 200-266. For information on motive power, see Part 3 — Power, of this Chapter 16 of the AREA Manual of Recommended Practices. Accordingly, this Part 4 on Railway Operations, focu.ses upon car distribution, train manage- ment, communications, defect detection, line capacity, terminals and economic considerations. 4.2 Car Distribution In order to provide good service to shippers, car distribution and control are key elements. Modem technology has contributed developments which improve the process of moving cars, both empty and loaded, to their destination on time. A major technical development has been in the application of computers and communications in the field of car distribution. Mainly, this involves the use of computer work stations or PCs con- nected to main-frame computers with high-speed digital communications links. Major railroads are handling car distribution from customer .service centers, where customers make toll-free calls to order empty cars or ask for reports on loads. In many instances, these are com- 46 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association puter-to-computer transactions between customers and railroads. Also, railroads and customers con- duct transactions over the Internet. Car distribution is the process of moving empty cars to fill customers' orders. A major effort is to move empty cars the minimum distance to serve customers. Empty cars generally show up at interchange points and in areas where traffic is terminated. Hence, accurate reporting of loads and empties is essential in planning for moving empties to fill shippers' orders in an efficient manner. Some railroads schedule individual car movements. A car (whether empty or loaded) is only moved when its move is authorized by a movement order. Railroads that use this process typically have the customer service center handle this function, rather than local supervision. Also, some railroads assign personnel to handle distribution of special cars or cars that handle specific freight, such as covered hopper cars, auto rack cars or double-stack cars. 4.2.1 Work Order Systems Some railroads are implementing work order systems in which computer work stations (may be lap top computers) in locomotive cabs are linked to a railroad's customer service center. Digital train- to-wayside radio and microwave or fiber optic cable provide the communication path between way- side radio stations and the customer service center. Customer service sends a work order to a train crew indicating cars to be picked up, set out, etc. The crews receive their orders on their on-board computer. They respond via the computer, record- ing their compliance. Thus, a written record is generated of orders and work accomplished. It is not unusual for an industry switch run to pull an empty car from one industry, reporting the pull, and receive an order to place the empty car at another industry for loading. Thus, real-time response enables the work order system to provide better customer service. 4.2.2 Automatic Equipment Identification The most recent technological development to ensure good customer service is Automatic Equipment Identification. AEI provides accurate identification of freight cars and locomotives in space and time. As of January 1, 1995, freight cars operating in interchange service were to be equipped with AEI tags identifying owner and car number. Locomotives were also equipped with AEI tags by Class I and regional railroads. Railroads are installing wayside scanners to read AEI tags, especially bracketing major yards and at many interchange points. The AEI wayside scanner provides location, date, time and train direction for all rolling stock, allowing trains to be tracked in real-time. Train consist information is stored at scanner sites until after the last car of the train has passed the scanner. Then, the tag readings are transmitted to a central office where AEI information is used to update the railroad's car reporting data base. This information is peri- odically sent to the Association of American Railroads' Washington, DC headquarters for updating the AAR's car data base and for informing shippers and other railroads of car movement information. The information is available to the railroad's car distribution and/or customer service center. Loaded car locations can be reported to shippers and other railroads when interchange is involved. Empty car locations can be provided to customer service centers for car distribution planning. Some railroads are installing AEI wayside scanners at hot bearing detector locations enabling car initial and number to be broadcast on detection of an overheated bearing. Communications links are vital for sending AEI data in real time to a railroad's headquarters for input to the car reporting data base. Thus, timely information on car location can be automatically Proposed Manual Changes 47 made available. This is especially helpful if AEI scanners are located on the departure side of yards to accurately report on cars leaving yards. Additionally, AEI tags may contain variable information, such as temperatures of refrigerator cars or data indicating health conditions of locomotives. The AEI scanner can read such status of cars or locomotives and send the information to headquarters, which in turn can notify the train crew and yard forces of any problem. With variable information tag capability, equipment must be added to the normally passive tag to program it with this additional data. Variable programmable message tags might also include information concerning hazardous material carried in a car. 4.2.2.1 AEI Economics Costs associated with installing AEI tags and scanners (readers) include: • Initial purchase price and in.stallation. • Maintenance of scanners, • Tag maintenance, if damaged. For variable message tags, cost of programming and periodic testing. • Communications for storage and transmission of AEI data should include equipment and .soft- ware purcha,se and installation costs, as well as maintenance costs. In the case of AEI, tags are usually a mechanical department responsibility. Scanners and com- munications equipment are typically a communications department responsibility. 4.3 Trains Trains are a series of cars coupled together and hauled by locomotives. 4.3.1 Train Consist Freight trains are usually made up for specific purposes depending upon the type of service to be provided. For example, intermodal trains carrying trailers or containers are operated by a .schedule, and typically have enough motive power to move the train and meet the schedule by operating at track speed. On main lines, these trains usually operate in traffic control system territory where movement authority is governed by signal indications. Regular freight trains may operate on a specific schedule or on a more general schedule, but one which allows trains to make connections. Often, over-the-road speed is not as critical for these trains as for intermodal trains. Under current operating agreements, these trains may make set offs and pick ups of blocks of cars at yards or at sidings on line. Unit trains handle only one commodity, such as coal, grain, or produce, operating between a single origin point and a single destination point. Depending upon the commodity, they may operate as an intermodal train or on a more relaxed .schedule, as used in hauling coal. Cars for the.se unit trains are often unique and may be operated only in specific trains. Unit coal trains usually have the same cars operating both loaded and empty. Trains carrying automobile parts and completely assembled motor vehicles, although operated as a unit train, will not always have the same cars in each train. Local trains operate on main lines, and also on branch lines. Sometimes they operate in one direction on one day, lay over at a terminal and return the next day. Some operate daily or on .selected days, making a complete round tnp over a portion of a line in one day. Industry runs are sometimes called locals, but they usually operate in a metropolitan or terminal area, returning each day to their originating terminal or yard. 4S Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Work trains are usually operated as extra trains, as required, to serve a specific purpose, such as distributing ballast, rail, tics, etc. Or they may be used to haul company material, as well as maintenance-of-way house trailers mounted on flat cars, between locations for gangs. 4.3.1.1 Passenger Trains Passenger trains, especially for long distance rail operations, tend to operate in fixed consists of numbers and types of cars and locomotives. For long distance service, 20 cars is a typical maximum train length. Factors to be considered in passenger train make up include: • Adequate capacity to provide good service to meet customer requirements, e.g., a comfort- able seated ride. • Motive power sufficient to provide on-time service to meet .schedules on a consi.stent basis. • Train length short enough to require only one stop at station platforms. Commuter rail service is substantially different from long distance service. Many of the oper- ating parameters are neariy opposite, if an efficient and effective service is desired. A pattern of relatively short trains that serve a particular zone, providing fast service to the cen- tral business district, and then operate in fast non-revenue service back for a second revenue trip, pro- vides far more efficient and effective service than the traditional all stop local trains. Commuter service requires a much higher level of on-time performance than either long dis- tance passenger or freight service. This on-time performance concept must be included in every aspect of design and operations. A 10 or 15 minute delay on a long distance train, although annoy- ing, will not cause the customer to use a competitive mode of transportation. A pattern of even minor delays will be sufficient reason for a commuter to return to his automobile. Commuter rail service requires exacting schedule development and precise operation. 4.3.2 Freight Train Length There is no optimum train length, i.e., that will meet all requirements under all conditions. Generally, costs tend to favor long trains with minimum motive power. However, to provide good customer service, shorter, faster trains are often required. A railroad's goal is to achieve operational balance; to meet customer service requirements at minimum cost. Train length is dictated by the length of passing sidings and by dynamic forces while handling trains in hilly territory. Increasing train length to handle tonnage has both advantages and disadvantages. It is possible to estimate the costs and benefits of operating different lengths of trains, arriving at an optimum length of train for a particular movement. This cost/benefit analysis of train length is greatly aided by computer simulation techniques. Train movement simulation should take into account track, sidings, grades, curves and other physical operating characteristics, such as traffic density, tunnel locations, destination congestion, etc. The primary objective of a railroad in private industry is to maximize profit. However, longer trains may work against the maximizing of profit, because they tend to reduce the quality of service and increase shippers' total distribution costs. The traditional bias toward longer trains may cause railroads to lower prices and reduce the quality of service. The result may be to reduce revenue through lower prices to retain a given amount of traffic, or moving less traffic at the same price. 4.3.2.1 Equipment Limitations Car equipment can be a limitation to long mixed trains, particulariy with regard to buff forces and drawbar strength. Proposed Manual Changes 49 Slack action occurs partly because of an undulating profile of the rail line. Changes in grade can be critical due to the impact forces set up between cars through the couplers, inducing a change of speed. This is most noticeable with long trains operating over a line having an undulating profile, even when the grades are not severe or limiting. Air brake operation can be a limitation. It is usually necessary to limit the speed of long, heavy trains, because of greatly increa.sed stopping distances and inadequate signal spacing. In cold weather, it is often difficult to get the required air pressure gradient as called for by federal regulations. Recent developments (circa 1996) in electronic braking systems could solve these problems. It is usual to limit the number of units of motive power on a train by specifying the number of powered axles that can be used. This is a function of the coupler .strength of the equipment. There are .some elements to consider when several diesel-electric locomotive units are coupled together and controlled from the lead unit. Care in operation is required in limiting the number of units to prevent jacknifing of the train when braking. There is .some evidence that excessive dynamic brake applications on heavy trains may damage the track structure. 4.3.2.2 Remote Control Power The development of control systems for the remote operation of locomotive units has made it possible to more effectively place power at other locations in a train consist in addition to the head end. Remote locomotives are automatically actuated by a radio system in response to control input by the engineman in the lead locomotive unit. Effective train operation can be enhanced if remote control power is used to mitigate the difference in speed between relatively heavy tonnage bulk trains and high priority trains. However, use of remote control power creates added difficulties in terminals, especially in auto- mated yards, to switch power out of the middle of trains, service the remote control units, and put them into other trains. The following factors should be analyzed when considering remote control power utilization: • Cutting in remote control power (slave units) at the originating yard is a co.st item as is the removal of slave units at the terminating yard. • Using remote locomotives to increa.se train length may increase line capacity. • Stopping distances decrease through the use of remote control power, as braking can be ini- tiated at more than ju.st from the head end of the train. • Improved train performance and control from the intermediate spacing of power is especially important on heavy grades. • Reduction of crew costs due to the reduction of the number of trains, as enginemen are not needed on remote control power (slave units). • Control of slave units in mountainous territory, especially where there are numerous tunnels, may be discontinuous. 4.3.2.2 Operating and Plant Limitations Terminal Yards: Car inspection forces are staffed to handle normal trains within a reasonable period of time. Charging trainlines is done in one of three ways: (1) by ground airlines; (2) by road engine crews; or (3) by yard engine crews. Where ground lines are available, charging time, and therefore cost is somewhat proportional to cut or train length. When the use of a road or yard engine is required, the cost of terminal time to the road crew must be considered, as well as lost switching service of the yard crew. Terminal air tests are mandatory. Using ground air has numerous advantages, especially if used in conjunction with pre-testing. Ground air reduces crew costs and initial terminal delay, but it also reduces 50 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association locomotive and car detention costs. With pre-testing to better balance car inspector workloads, overtime and perhaps car inspector positions can be reduced as compared to charging with locomotives. Doubling in or out of a terminal or a yard would appear to be a most important factor in deter- mining optimum train length. In determining the cost of such doubling, where not limited by high- way-rail grade crossings, consideration should be given to: • Additional wage expense of the road crew if they perform this particular work. • Delays to yard or terminal switching to and by other crews. • The net income effect of these costs would then have to be weighed against the cost of elim- inating such doubling train movements. Yard switching may be adversely affected by long trains blocking leads through the necessity of having to double into or out of receiving and departure tracks. A train of twice the length of another train may require twice as much time to be pulled by a given point for inspection. Fueling and Serx'icing Locomotives: Most railroads are putting an average of 1200 to 1 500 gal- lons into fuel tanks capable of holding more than twice that amount, because many other factors besides train length affect the need to fuel. Locomotives are placed on service tracks for service, for minor repairs, for turning and consist building, as well as fueling. Once on the service track, the increased cost of fueling is almost nil. At a fueling rate of about 250 gallons per minute, the actual time to fuel is not as significant as the ben- efits of reducing the frequency of fueling. Blocking: When a train picks up cars at an intermediate terminal, these cars must be arranged "out-of-block" as a unit to be dropped at a subsequent terminal for proper blocking for later train, or they may, at the cost of delay, be cut into the proper blocks in the first train. On lines where weight restrictions exist over some bridges, a heavy car will have to be imme- diately preceded and followed by empty cars. When possible, because of dynamic forces that occur on heavy grades, some types of cars such as long, light cars, should not be placed immediately behind the locomotive. Detailed treatment may be found in AAR Train-Track Dynamics reports. Also, loaded tri-level auto rack cars should not be placed next to open top loads such as sand, coal, sulfur, etc. Hazardous material when hauled by rail are subject to federal regulations. Cars carrying haz- ardous materials shall be placarded to indicate the lading. Also, the position in the train of placarded cars is governed by federal regulations. Over The Road: The effect of operating longer trains should be to operate fewer trains. Therefore, this will result in fewer train meets on line, providing it is physically and economically possible to extend the length of passing sidings. Some trains may be too long for passing sidings which could limit track capacity. An effect of operating longer trains is usually to increase car cycle time. Operating longer trains with minimum motive power units, so that they operate at lower speeds, could increase conflicts with trains operating at high speeds. The speed differential between the slower and the higher speed trains could become so great as to adversely affect scheduling and plan- ning for meets and passes. Motive power reliability must be at high levels. The number and length of sidings fall into a group of semi-variable costs, which are those that occur only when the increase in density of traffic advances sufficiently to require additional sidings or lengthening or existing sidings. Simulation of train operations can be helpful in determining sid- ing lengths and spacing. AAR simulation models are available. Proposed Manual Changes 5 1 The longer the train, the more likely it will affect both at-grade railroad crossings and highway- rail grade crossings, since each such crossing would be occupied by the train for a longer time period. Conversely, shorter trains result in more frequent service, which will impact both types of at-grade cross- ings, although the time required to traverse each crossing would be relatively brief. As for highway-rail grade crossings, the greater frequency of trains may result in higher exposure to accidents. Also, it should be noted that motorists become impatient waiting for long trains to clear the crossing. Where local governmental ordinances limit train speeds, repeal of such ordinances would permit train speeds to be raised which would reduce the time trains would occupy these highway-rail grade crossings. Damage to equipment and lading results in large measure from the interchange of inertial effects caused by different parts of a train being on various gradients with portions stretched and oth- ers bunched and then balancing upon reaching level track. Crew costs may be based on the number of diesel units operated, or total locomotive weight. Longer trains tend to increase extra crew pay incurred during terminal delays. Comparative costs of operation and maintenance of ac versus dc traction motored diesel- electric locomotive should be considered. Some railroads are finding that, for a given horsepower, the greater adhesion of ac traction locomotives requires fewer locomotive units than dc traction loco- motive units. The brushless ac traction motor should reduce maintenance costs. Helper Senice: An intermediate breaking up of trains to cut in helpers, or just adding helpers at the rear of trains to overcome heavy grades, is a time-consuming and costly process but is the most practical and efficient utilization of equipment. The desirability of helper service depends on the nature of the route. If heavy grades are con- centrated, it is more economical to operate helpers on the heavy grades only than to run extra loco- motive units through the entire route, because they would not be needed on most of this territory. However, positioning helper locomotives and crews away from terminals, and the time spent cutting helpers in and out of trains, are significant costs. It should be noted that recent technology permits cutting off helper locomotive units on the fly without stopping the train. Track Limitations: The operation of fewer long trains to move a given quantity of traffic increases the time available for track maintenance and improves the utilization of m/w forces and equipment during schedule work hours. The dynamic forces involved with train operation are not thoroughly understood, and has been a continuing subject of investigation by individual railroads and the AAR. It is known that train length is one of the factors affecting these forces. Customer service covers frequency and dependability of service to both consignee and con- signor. This element is compri.sed of two categories: (1) customers whose product has a high time value (for example, manufactured goods or perishables) for whom frequency is of first importance; and (2) those whose product has a lower time value (for example, raw materials) with frequency not as significant, though service consistency may be important. It should be kept in mind that length and frequency are inverse variables, which both enter into the economics of the railroad. The customer who is concerned about a high time-value product, will be interested only in frequency and not in train length per se, assuming that lengths are restricted to a maximum limit before undesirable effects such as damage to lading from excessive slack action occurs. Limitations of plant and track layout at origin and/or destination can incur additional railway cost by requiring switching or excessive loading or unloading time. Interchange connections with other railroads and trains may be less reliable creating a lower quality of service for other traffic. The effect of operating longer and fewer trains will normally be to increase the number of cars required. 52 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Individual axle loads may be limited by track conditions and the structural capacity of bridges. The capacity of bridges is usually the limiting factor for the total weight of a car or series of cars. Also, the maximum dimensions of individual loads may be limited by restrictive clearances. One effect of the operation of long trains will be the concentration of motive power on these trains which affects the flow cycle of motive power, especially if long trains are operated on a spo- radic basis. The operating costs of long trains compared to short trains must take into account the savings such as reduced number of crews as opposed to the increased cost of terminal delay, switching, over- the-road time, as well as the effect of equipment and plant investment in the long term. 4.4 Train Management Train management involves moving trains by designated authorization issued by dispatchers who use computers, radio and train movement (signal) systems. To meet customer logistics requirements, an increasing proportion of cars are moved in scheduled trains. Unit trains such as those hauling coal or grain, while not operating on a fixed schedule, are moved to meet customer time requirements. Extra trains, often with no specific schedule are also operated. Amtrak and commuter railroad operators run passenger trains on fixed schedules. 4.4.1 Dispatching Dispatchers use two methods of issuing orders to move trains: (1) verbal orders to train crews, who write the order on a special form; and (2) verbal order to train crews to proceed, but where the train movement is governed by signal indications, where installed. Computers are used extensively to aid train dispatchers. In Direct Traffic Control (DTC) or Track Warrant Systems (TWS), the computer is used to generate train orders, and safety checks are built into the software that prevents dispatchers from issuing conflicting orders. Also, the computer stores a record of orders issued. Computer simulation, an important advance in modem technology, allows railroads to adjust to optimize schedules, mofive power assignments and car supply to meet customer service requirements. 4.4.1.1 Movement by Orders In non-signaled territory, trains can be moved by written orders issued by dispatchers directly to train crews. The Standard Code of Operating Rules of the Association of American Railroads has been the basis for operating rules of individual railroads. Variations of the Standard Code may be adopted by individual railroads. Additionally, several railroads may agree to a set of operating rules that will apply to all of them. Dispatchers issue movement orders to train crews via train-to-wayside voice radio. In general, a crew member writes the order on a special form and reads the order to the dispatcher, who confirms a correct order (dialog between the two will make corrections, if required) with the date, effective time and dispatcher identity. Also known as the train order system, this method of moving trains in non-signaled territory may be called DTC or TWS. In either DTC or TWS, limits are set for a train's movement. The lim- its may be mile posts, block names or named locations. Under DTC or TWS, train crews report periodically to the dispatcher. Some dispatchers have forms on which this train crew reporting information is recorded. If the dispatcher uses a computer, he will input the information into his computer. Similar activity occurs when trains are operated in automatic block signal territory. Proposed Manual Changes 53 4.4.1.2 Movement by Signal Indication Train orders are issued for movement in Automatic Bloctc Signal (ABS) territory for meets and passes. However, train operations are normally governed by signal indications. Train movements are authorized by signal indications in Centralized Traffic Control (CTC) or Traffic Control System (TCS) territory. Under TCS operation, the dispatcher controls the switches and signals. Operation through interlockings is also governed by signal indications. When a train is ready to leave a yard or teminal, the train crew notifies the dispatcher, who will clear a signal authorizing the train to move. From then on, movement authority is by signal indication. In TCS or CTC territory, the movement of trains is automatically monitored and OS (on sta- tion) time reports are automatically recorded by the dispatch computer or a TCS control machine. General practice is to record all voice transmissions of both dispatchers and train crews. Recordings are usually kept up to six months or one year. 4.4.1.3 Dispatcher Territories Dispatchers are usually assigned a specific territory. Its size depends on traffic load, on-track work by maintenance-of-way forces, signal maintenance, and the number of local trains or industry runs. Usually, there is more work for a dispatcher on the first trick (8 am to 4 pm), Monday through Friday than on other tricks or shifts. For second and/or third trick, or on weekends, adjacent dis- patcher territories may be combined. Most railroads have placed all dispatchers at a central office at or near the railroad's headquar- ters building. With such centralization, as much as 5,000 to 20,000 route miles of line can be dis- patched from one location. A few railroads have regional dispatch offices, handling about 5,000 road miles of territory. An individual dispatcher may control 200-400 road miles of territory. Where traffic is heavy with several local and through trains and extensive m/w activity, an individual dispatcher may have a smaller territory, possibly 100-200 road miles. Central versus regional dispatching for large railroads is a matter of management preference and cost. Advantages of one centralized dispatch center includes having only one of each of the following: • Building where dispatching is performed, and its physical and environmental security. • Power supply with backup, air conditioning, water supply, etc. • Communications and interface to management information systems. • Interface to railroad management. • Interface to emergency services and communications along line of road. Centralized dispatching has some disadvantages, including the co.st of alternate means of power supply and communications, realizing they support the entire railroad dispatch function. The.se alter- nate power and communications are required at regional dispatch centers, but are not as critical. When all dispatching is at one location, a failure of the power supply or communications could dis- rupt railroad operations throughout the entire system. In any case, a good disaster recovery plan is essential, including back up control at different locations. 4.4.2 Train Movement Systems Train movement systems include automatic block signaling, interiockings, traffic control sys- tems and train control systems. Automatic block signaling and interiockings are often part of traffic control systems. In fact, TCS can be viewed as ABS with successive interiockings. ABS, when included in a TCS system, usually governs train movements between ends of con- trolled passing sidings. In multiple track territory, ABS is often installed to govern movements only 54 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association in one direction, with a second track utilized for movement in the opposite direction. In single track territory, ABS with a variation known as Absolute Permissive Block can provide for following and reverse moves, yet this systems prohibits conflicting moves between ends of passing sidings. Interlockings are provided where tracks cross, as well as where crossovers permit trains to move from one track to another and/or at junctions with other lines. Such track layouts may be com- plex, especially in terminal areas. Switches and signals are controlled in such a manner that conflict- ing routes cannot be obtained. In some complex interlockings, several simultaneous parallel train movements can be made safely, effectively increasing plant capacity. The trend is to convert from local control to remote controlling of interlockings, or to incorpo- rate interlocking control into existing TCS or CTC systems. Under local control, interlocking operators receive requests for train moves from train crews, yardmasters or dispatchers. Automatic intedockings are usually located where two railroads cross at grade and where traf- fic on at least one railroad is light. The first train to occupy an approach track circuit to the inter- locking receives a signal indication to proceed, while conflicting routes are halted until the first train clears the interiocking. 4.4.2.1 Traffic Control Systems (TCS) Traffic control systems may also be known as centralized traffic control. TCS and CTC are operationally indentical. In each, train movements are governed by signal indications. Switches and signals are controlled by dispatchers. Train location, switch position and signal indications are dis- played on a model board at the dispatcher's office along with a track layout. In newer computer aided systems, the dispatcher may operate a PC or a computer work station (usually more powerful and with greater storage capacity than a PC). The work station is connected to a main frame computer with large storage capacity and high-speed retrieval and reading capacity. A large display, such as back-lighted projection screens which shows the entire railroad, may be provided. In such ca.ses, the dispatcher can usually bring up a section he wishes to control into his work station display unit. Some railroads use the work station concept whereby a dispatcher may have as many as three monitors to show his territory, but can bring up a small section to perform specific control functions. With this concept, the large display of the entire railroad is not provided. 4.4.2.2 Automatic Train Control Systems (ATC) Automatic train control provides an additional safety system ovedaid on ABS orTCS/CTC ter- ritories to enforce speed restrictions. Although often classified as train control, cab signal systems do not enforce speed restrictions, but only bring signal aspects into the locomotive cab where they can be seen by the train crew. This is especially helpful in fog or with heavy snowfall conditions. Also, cab signals continuously reflect the track conditions ahead of the train. If a switch is open, for exam- ple, it is immediately shown by a cab signal downgrade. The engineman need not wait until he sees a wayside signal to take action. Conversely, if a train ahead should clear the main track, the follow- ing train's cab signal will upgrade to a more favorable aspect, allowing the engineman to increase speed. There is no need to continue at a slower speed until a wayside signal can be seen. Brake control can be incorporated into the cab signal system to initiate braking, should the engineman fail to acknowledge a change to a more restrictive cab signal aspect. Other train control systems include intermittent inductive train stop, and continuous speed control. The intermittent inductive system uses wayside inductors or beacons located just in approach to wayside signals. Upon a more restrictive wayside signal, an audible indication sounds in the loco- motive cab, alerting the engineman that the wayside signal is displaying an aspect to move at a more Proposed Manual Changes 55 restrictive speed. The engineman must acknowledge within 4 to 6 seconds or a penalty brake appli- cation is automatically applied, which brings the train to a complete stop. With continuous speed control, the speed of the train is monitored in addition to track condi- tions. When conditions call for a lower speed (train ahead, for example), an audible indication is .sounded. If the engineman responds within 4 to 6 seconds by operating an acknowledgment lever and brings the train speed down, he maintains control of the train. If he does not acknowledge, or if he acknowledges but does not reduce train speed, a penalty brake application is automatically applied that brings the train to a complete stop. Generally, if continuous speed control is placed in service, the locomotives are also equipped with cab signals. On rail transit lines and on a few commuter rail lines, an intermittent train stop system is installed with a trip stop arm at each wayside signal location. When the wayside signal indicates Stop (a Red aspect), the trip is in the up or raised position. If the train pa.s.ses this Stop signal, the trip arm is struck by a car or locomotive mounted brake paddle releasing the air from the brake system and the train is brought to a complete stop. 4.4.3 Economics of Train Management Costs associated with improved train management systems depend upon a number of variables. These should be considered and may not apply in all cases. Some are added costs, others will pro- vide savings. The variables to be considered when making a complete economic study of proposed train man- agement systems include: Payroll: For train crews, road hours may be reduced by improved over-the-road time, and ter- minal time may be reduced by the ability to dispatch trains more quickly and efficiently. For dispatchers, payroll costs should be reduced by centralized dispatching or consolidation of territories resulting in fewer dispatchers required. For interlocking operators, payroll costs can be reduced by remotely controlling plants or bring- ing interlocking control into TCS or CTC territory. Either of these control changes reduces the num- ber of interlocking operators required. Signal maintenance forces increase as train movement systems are expanded. Communications maintenance forces increase as more radio and data communications facilities are upgraded and expanded. This is especially true where defect detectors are equipped with "talkers" or radios to report conditions directly to train crews. Train Time: Improved performance should reduce origin-to-destination running time. Train hours are decrea.sed through shorter standing time for meets and passes, fewer train stops and reduced elapsed time when trains move through power and spring switches. With long passing sidings in TCS or CTC territory, non-stop meets may be accomplished. A reduction in train running time improves the ratio of train miles per train hour. Train miles may be reduced due to increased tonnage of trains through improved performance. Average train speeds should increase. Crew wages may be adjusted for the decreased train time, but savings depend upon labor agree- ment provisions. There may be reduced locomotive requirements through reduced train miles and reduced loco- motive time. 36 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Train Stops: The costs of stopping trains, especially for meets and passes is reduced with improved TCS or CTC. With long sidings or sections of double track and single track, non-stop meets and passes can occur. Fuel savings would result from fewer stops and often less waiting time in sidings in traffic con- trol territory. Brake shoe wear is reduced through elimination of stops and slowdowns. Some small cost reductions may be achieved through less frequent replacements of rails and wheels, due to reduced wear as a result of fewer train stops and slowdowns. Freight train delay time is reduced. With fewer stops and less delay, damage to lading is reduced providing better service to shippers. Taxes are affected by changes in plant and can be significant if double track can be replaced with single track TCS or CTC with passing sidings. Overall maintenance costs with new train movement systems include both increased and decreased expenses. For example, if a second main track is removed, there are less track maintenance costs. But with more signal equipment required, there are increased signal maintenance costs. Also, with second track removed, rate of track geometry changes and track component degradation can increase (more trains over remaining track). If dispatcher consolidations can be implemented, associated costs are reduced. The improvement in motive power utilization may decrease this maintenance cost. Car Time: The same amount of traffic is moved at less expense with fewer car hours, due to improved over-the-road time. This postpones the necessity of increasing car inventory and reduces per diem payments. Depreciation changes due to the increased or decreased plant. Safety can be expected to improve due to increased mileage of train movement systems. There should also be a decrease in the number and severity of accidents. Investment changes result from the reduction of double track by the installation of the TCS or CTC. Also, if these traffic control systems are applied to single track, they increase its capacity and defer the requirement to install a second track. For planning expenditures, first consider whether changes in plant or operations can be made without the installation of new train movement systems. Intangible benefits also should be considered, including better customer service, increased flex- ibility in operations and improved productivity. Weather conditions affect operations, and costs are associated with weather. For example, one should consider snow removal as a cost, as well as costs to recover from floods or other weather related occurrences. 4.5 Communications It should be noted that communications facilities and services can be provided by the railroad or transportation agency. Also, it is possible that all or part of communications facilities and services can be provided by other entities, such as communications common carriers and other private communications companies. Costs for installation, operation and maintenance have to be analyzed including the condition of owning the communications facilities, leasing them, or having the entire communications plant and service provided by an outside entity. Proposed Manual Changes 57 One factor to be considered in providing communications by the transportation carrier is that of control and recovery after natural disasters. 4.5.1 Essential Communications Digital and voice radio can connect wayside stations to moving trains. For dispatcher-to-train crew communications, this can be a voice link and/or a digital voice system. A digital data link is needed to transmit data between control centers and the train. The link from the moving train to the wayside is via radio; but the link from the wayside radio station to the control center can be fiber optic cables, microwave radio systems, UHF or VHF radio station segments, or leased communica- tions circuits. The fiber optic cable provides high capacity with room for expansion and is immune to electro-magnetic fields created by electrified rail lines or electric power transmission lines. Inductive communications technology is often used to transmit data from track to train via bea- cons, "'wiggly wires", inductors or transponders. Coded track circuits in the rail can transmit signal- ing data, speed commands, etc., to a train. Other systems that do not use coded track circuits can u.se digital radio links from the wayside to a train equipped with an on-board computer to handle the con- trol and information function. 4.5.2 On-Board Communications On board the train, voice radio may be advisable with portable handsets for crew member com- munications. For passenger trains, a suitable location mid-train, such as a dining or lounge car, could be a conductor's station equipped with 30 to 50 watt output radio enabling him to contact the control center or dispatcher. 4.5.3 Emergency Communications During an emergency when the train is not operating under normal conditions, communication is of extreme importance. Battery-powered handheld radio sets are most useful, but standby power sources or batteries should be provided for the 30 to 50 watt radio tran.sceivers to enable train crew members to contract a control center and local emergency services. The radio communications load should be considered when sizing battery power for radio equipment. 4.5.4 New Technologies Cellular and satellite radio communications offer additional wireless links between moving trains, m/w forces and railroads' regional offices. Also, some railroads are investigating the use of Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) for determining train location, and physical plant mapping. Also, being looked into is the use of satellite communications for high volume communications to link rail- road headquarters with regional and off-line offices. Satellite communications could reduce the requirements for land lines, microwave or cable links. Again, this requires an economic study of costs of the various forms of communications covering installation, operations and maintenance. 4.6 Defect Detection See Part 5, Economics and Location of Defect Detector Sy.stems, in Chapter 16 of this Manual. 4.7 Line Capacity The basic operating capacity of a segment of railroad track to handle train movements is depen- dent upon the speed of trains and the distance between them. The speed of a train over a specific seg- ment of railroad is. in turn, dependent upon the ratio of horsepower to gross tonnage of the train and the grades, curves and other such features encountered by the train. In single track, double direction operation, the distance between trains is a function of the distance between usable sidings. A usable siding is one that must be clear for an opposmg tram to enter and pass through in a normal, straight- forward movement, and also long enough for all trains to clear the main track before stopping. The 58 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association distance between trains is dependent upon the length and number of signal blocks used to space trains within double track territory under smgle direction operation. Signal spacing is a function of the stop- ping distance of a maximum tonnage train operating at the maximum authonzed speed; this will pro- vide the maximum stopping distance for all trains in this territory. Line capacity can be expressed by the formula: C, = C,xE where C|, = Practical line segment capacity C, = Theoretical line segment capacity E = Dispatching efficiency for line .segment The dispatching efficiency of a railroad varies by territory and can be influenced by many fac- tors. Some of these are relatively predictable while others are completely random. The type of signal system is a major influence on the dispatching efficiency. Traffic control sys- tems have a much higher efficiency than dispatching in non-signaled or "dark" territory. Automatic block signaling falls somewhere between these two mentioned above. Radio communications for train-to-wayside functions can increase dispatching efficiency, as well as radio "talkers" at defect detector installations. The type of traffic moving over a segment of a railroad influences the line capacity and the dis- patching efficiency. A bridge line has a much higher dispatching efficiency than a line with many industries and yard limits. The movement of yard engines and local freights can reduce the line capacity for through movements. The physical characteristics of a line also influence dispatching efficiency and line capacity. A line with heavy grades or undulating territory, which may have a higher incidence of train separa- tions, has a lower dispatching efficiency than a line with fewer hills and resulting abnormalities in train operation. Also impacting line capacity are maintenance operations, such as allowing time and track for maintenance-of-way work. Some railroads provide "windows" for m/w work and later fleet trains after the work is completed. MAV work is a fact of life and should be taken into account when cal- culating line capacity. It should be pointed out that on many railroads, such as those in northern cli- mates, m/w work is usually done in spring and summer weather. Thus line capacity is impacted dur- ing certain times of the year. Of course, one can make the point, that snow clearing also affects line capacity. Thus weather and m/w work should be taken into consideration in any line capacity study. All of the factors mentioned so far are relatively predictable for a given line segment. Other fac- tors which are completely random in their effect include locomotive failures, derailments, overheated bearings ("heatboxes"), highway-rail grade crossing accidents, temporary slow orders, etc. Any occurrence which prevents a train from making its scheduled running time tends to lower the dis- patching efficiency of a line. Some factors such as locomotive failures, hotboxes, and highway-rail grade crossing accidents may be random in the short term, but can be managed over the longer term. Since these factors are random, their statistical prediction may be possible if conditions are sim- ilar for a large number of trains. The theoretical capacity of the line segments is determined by the formula: _ Time x N ^1 ~ TT Proposed Manual Changes 59 where Time = number of units of time in the period for which capacity is being calculated, for exam- ple, 1440 minutes in a day N = the number of directions run on a single track (either 1 or 2) H„ = the maximum gross headway in N directions For double-track, single-direction running (N = 1), gross headway (H,) is the average minimum time between trains in a minute. This can be calculated using the formula: „ Db X Bn Hi — ' V where V = average speed of trains over a line segment Db - average signal blocks length Bn = number of signal blocks separating trains operating on a proceed signal indication For single-track, two-direction operation (N - 2), the gross headway (H,) is defined by the formula: H, = R, -I- R, -t- T, -t- T, where R, = minimum unopposed running time in direction 1 for the train with the lowest horse- power to gross tonnage ratio on the line segment in direction T| = the time necessary for a train in one direction to enter a siding, clear the main track, return the turnout to the normal position such that the opposing train may proceed. In single-track, two-direction territory, gross headway is the minimum period of time one train could operate following a previous train from siding A to the next siding B, if the opposing train at siding B is to be moved from B to A between the trains. In using the formula, care must be taken to ensure that all values used are in like units. Generally, distance is expressed in feet, time in minutes, and speed in feet per minute. After calculating the capacity of a line segment, its load factor is calculated. This is done by dividing the number of trains currently being operated over the line segment by the practical capac- ity of the line segment, and multiplying by 100 to find the percentage. The practical maximum line capacity is about 75% of the potential capacity given by these for- mulae. The contributing factors include: (1) automatic block signals, (2) quality of dispatcher-to-train radio coverage. (3) extent of local business, and (4) track profile characteristics or incidences of train separation. Operation of a line at too high a load factor is not a desirable characteristic, because little capac- ity remains for unplanned movements such as extras or detours. The availability of track time for maintenance work becomes limited as the load factor increases. To determine the bottleneck segment of a line, the highest load factor is of more importance than the lowest capacity segment. Any plans for plant improvements to expedite train movements must fall into one of two categories. The speed of trains must be mcrea.sed or the distance between trains must be decreased. Line or route modifications or changes in the horsepower to gross tonnage ratio will affect the speed of the train. Changes in the location of siding and/or changes to the signal system will affect the spacing of trains. Efforts in these areas yield optimum economic benefits when directed to those segments with the highest load factors. 60 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association In practice, many railroads employ sophisticated computer simulation models that "run" vari- ous segments of the railroad at different loading levels based on actual or projected schedules, to pin- point bottlenecks to improve train flow. The absolute value of the load factor or comparison to some standard is not really all that impor- tant. The importance of the load factor is in enhancing management's capability to rank portions of the railroad so as to be able to direct capital improvements where they will have the greatest benefit. For this reason, the selection of an exact dispatching efficiency is not all that critical. Theoretical line capacity may be used just as easily. One must understand that capital funds are a scarce resource. Management requires a quantitative method of ranking demands. Return on investment is of prime importance, but in areas such as increases in railroad line capacity, calculation of return on invest- ment is rather imprecise. Ranking of line segments by "load factor" becomes even more important. The preceding discussion has dealt exclusively with the "physical" capacity of a railroad line segment. Additional constraints may limit railroad operation to less than its physical capacity. One such constraint is the Hours of Service Law, which limits the on-duty time of train and engine crews. As the over-the-road time of trains between crew change points approaches the limit set by this law, the railroad is said to be "saturated", although the physical capacity of the line may not have been reached. In addition to the over-the-road running times and delay to meets and passes with other trains, other factors such as initial and final terminal delay, set-outs and pick-ups on line-of-road, etc., may affect the total crew on-duty time, and constrain the operating capacity of the railroad, as opposed to its physical capacity. 4.8 Terminals Terminals are facilities dedicated to the performance of one or more specific tasks. These tasks may include car classification, car unloading and loading, and interface between various transporta- tion modes. Each type of terminal requires specific types of design and equipment to economically achieve its purpose. Terminals are covered in Chapter 14 of this Manual. Experience has proved you can depend on them. WESTERN-CULLEN-HAYES Railroad Products' For Maintenance-Of-Way Hayes Bumping Posts Delectric® Operators Hayes Derails For Signaling Crossing Signals Gate Mechanisms Case & Track Hardware For Communications Telephone Shelter Boxes Lightning Arresters WESTERN-CULLEN-HAYES, Inc. 2700 West 36th Place • Chicago, Illinois 60632 Telephone: 773/254-9600 Web site: www.wch.com Take advantage of Western-Cullen-Hayes service proven equipment and experi- enced railway supply personnel to assure safe, efficient operation on your line or in your yards. Call 773/254-9600. Chemelron^s ATV. Coming at you with more welding power than ever. On track. Off track. Chemetron's latest technology All Track Vehicle (ATV) can deliver field welding sen/ices fast, and with more consistent flash-butt quality than any other in-track welder Ever. The technology behind the weld quality of Chemetron's ATV is an improved K-900 welding head and the proprietary software our on-board computer uses to control welding cycles. Precisely. Chemetron's mobile welder was engineered to exceed AREA specs, including the "upset to refusal" requirements. Our computer system guarantees plant quality in-track welds. Continuously. Offering optimum production for all rail sizes and metallurgies, Chemetron has complete mobile welding units for sale or lease, for short or long term contract welding. W\\h full engineering and maintenance "^^^*T^j support. Put Chemetron's ATV in-track welder to work for you by calling Larry Taylor at 847-520-5454. Today. 61 Will the next rail you buy be fully heat-treated, head-hardened, or inter- mediate strength? Will the next turnouts you buy be state-of-the- art manganese castings, vacuum -molded and machined for perfect fit? The answer is yes, if you're out for the best rail products the world has to offer. And that means Foster-Class, from L.B. Foster Company. World-class. Well go aCTOSS the coun- try or around the world to meet today's standards. So you get a double advantage: world- class technology along with superior Foster fin- ishing and Foster servic- ing right here at home. For instance, Foster supplied turnouts meet all AREA specs, and every inch is pre -inspected before shipment. We go to special lengths on relay rail, too. Just as we've been doing for 80 years, we bring you the largest stocks in the world. And more. Today we take up and deliver pre -welded lengths up to a quarter- of a-miletocutyour on-site fabrication costs. Go Foster-Class for your tallest or smallest orders. Give us a call and we'll ship any rail order — including turnouts and accessories — on time, anywhere, from stocking points coast to coast. Plus special sections and long lengths of new rail, rolled to order We're also your number one source for sophisticated track and contact rail components for transit systems. The Foster difference is a world of difference. Because Foster- Class is world-class. Phone or write L.B. Foster Com- pany, 415 Holiday Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15220. (412) 928-3400. FOSTER L.B.FOSTER COMPANY 62 Proposed Manual Changes 63 Proposed 1997 Manual Revisions to Chapter 18 — Light Density and Short Line Railways Part 1— Track Components and Track Design Page 18-ii. Add the following new Table of Contents. List of Tables and Table 1.1, Dimension and Surface Specifications for Relay (Second hand) Rail. Table of Contents Section/Article Description Page 1.1 Rail List of Tables Table Description Page 1-1 Dimension and Surface Specifications for Relay (Secondhand) Rail Rail Sections - In Use Since About 1900 (See Plan 1001 in Portfolio of Trackwork Plans) Table 1.1 Dimension and Surface Specifications for Secondhand (Relay) Rail Length Standard 39 ft lengths. Not more than \Q9c of lot between 33 ft and 39 ft. No rail shorter than 33 ft. Vertical Wear Average top wear '/» in. or less with maximum at any one loca- tion of Vi: in. (For yard and sidings, average top wear up to 'a in. with Vi.. in. maximum at a single location). Side Wear Maximum of 'A in. ('/^ in. for yard and sidings), with wear on one side only. Lip or Overflow Maximum of '/k, in. Engine Bums Maximum of '/; in. diameter (or 'A in. wide by Vi in. long) and Vn in. deep. Maximum of six engine bums per rail. Engine burns on no more than 8% of the lot. End Batter and Chipping Maximum of '/k. in. ('/» in. for yards and sidings) when measured '/: in. from the rail end with an 18 in. straightedge. Running Surface Damage Maximum of 'A in. wide by '/: in. long and '/'; in. deep. Flat spots are not permitted on the rail head. Defects Not Permitted Bolt hole cracks or breaks, broken base, crushed head, detail or engine bum fractures, head-web separation, piping, horizontal or vertical split head, torch cuts or fiame gouges, compound or transverse fissures, pitting. Condition and Appearances Internal Inspection Rail must be: free from obvious defects; clean in appearance; straight in line and surface and without kinks; and free from ba.se defects such as plate wear, spike notches, pitting, and fiame-gouging. Rail to be ultrasonically inspected before of after installation. Defective sections to be rejected and replaced. r MAGNUM CONCRETE GRADE CROSSING • Manufactured to fit any rail ranging from 115 lb to 136 1b. • Designed for wood and concrete ties. • Low maintenance — long wear. • Custom designed for switches. • Insulated crossings available. MAGNUM MANUFACTURING CORPORATION (801) 785-9700 • FAX (801) 785-9701 Manufacturing locations in: Pleasant Grove, Utah and Everman, Texas MAGNUM 'PoraV^" Nolan Rail Products Choose from a wide range of dependable, tested and field proven rail products. The Nolan Company offers the best in long lasting, hard working maintenance-of-way equipment. For more information on Nolan's full line, ask for our full color catalog. Push Cars the NOLAN company 1016 NINTH ST S.W. CANTON, OH 44707 (330) 453-7922 FAX (330) 453-7449 64 Proposed Manual Changes 65 Revisions to the AAR Scale Handbook Part 5 — Vehicle Scales Page 3-2. Committee 34 has reviewed Part 5, Vehicle Scales, and approved the following revisions, effective January 1, 1997. 5. 1 (c) Vehicle scales may be mechanical, analog, digital, or a combination thereof. 5.1 (d) All vehicle scales shall meet the specifications and requirements of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Handbook 44, and State laws for the jurisdiction in which the scale is located. (Editorial Note: Remove "comma" after the word 'specifications' in the Manual.) 5. 1 (e) Vehicle scales shall have valid NTEP Certificates of Conformance. 5.2.1 (a) The minimum pit depth, measured from the bottom of the weighbridge structure to the floor of the pit, should be: 5.2.3 (a) Lever stands of load cell base plates shall be properly leveled, and grouted if neces- sary, to provide even distribution of the load over the full surface of the stands or plates. 5.2.3 (b) Load cell base plates shall be leveled to a tolerance of not more than 0.015 in. per ft., with consideration to leveling the weighbridge transversely and on grade longitudinally. 5.2.4 (a) Piers must support the combined loads applied by the weight of the scale, the weigh- bridge, plus the maximum anticipated load on the scale, so that any settlement shall be uniform throughout the structure. 5.2.5 (a) A minimum of four (4) anchor bolts shall be used for load cell base plates where the design creates an uplift or shear reaction to the anchor bolts. 5.3.1 (a) Main girders for weighbridges shall not deflect more than 1/600 of the span at mid- point when loaded to the rated concentrated load capacity (Dual Axle Capacity). 5.6 All scales manufactured after January 1 , 1986, must be marked with the accuracy class des- ignation, nominal capacity, concentrated load capacity, scale division "d", and verification scale divi- sion "e" if different than "d", clearly on the device. Unless temperature range is 14 degrees to 104 degrees F (-10 degrees to 40 degrees C), the temperature range must be conspicuously marked. 5.12 The power requirements of the electronic instrumentation and load cell circuitry for elec- tronic scales must conform to applicable regulatory requirements and codes; and the scale must sat- isfy the tolerance requirement when scale equipment is subjected to RFl and EMI infiuences which may exist during normal scale operation. Change 50 ties an hour under heavy traffic Twenty trains per day use this track. Yet despite this heavy traffic, a single MRT-2 Tie Changer can replace 50 ties an hour in an average day. The secret is the quick on-off track- ability designed into the MRT-2. In less than two minutes, any place along the line, it can climb on or off track com- pletely under its own power. Old ties - even switch ties - are rerrioved whole, with minimal disturbance to track structure. If you're now wasting valuable time clearing for trains, switch to the MRT-2. Sales and service available throughout North America. Contact us for a free demonstration. m^SMi MODERN TRACK MACHINERY INC. 1415 Davis Rd., Elgin, IL 60123-1375 Tel. (847) 697-751 0 Fax: (847) 697-01 36 MODERN TRACK MACHINERY CANADA LTD. 5926 Shawson Drive, Mississauga, Ontario L4W 3W5 Tel. (905) 564-121 1 Fax: (905) 564-1217 66 NORFOLK SOUTHERN TRACKSIDE LUBRICATION STUDIES 1997 Interim Report By: D. E. Cregger* Abstract Interim results from detailed monitoring of rail wear related to trackside lubrication equipment and lubricant has revealed significant differences in equipment and lubricant performance. The effect of rail profile grinding on high rail gauge face wear was defined for 9-degree, 6-degree, and 4-degree test curves. Significant opportunity was found for increasing rail metal wear life and increasing the efficiency of lubrication. Good afternoon. I am plea.sed and honored to present to you today the interim findings of the Norfolk Southern trackside lubncation studies. These on-going studies were initiated due to a loss of shunt incident in 1992. The results of our first tests were shared at the 1994 As.sociation of American Railroads (AAR) sponsored Town Hall meeting in Kansas City. Those findings of large percentages of grease waste were later corroborated through independent testing by the Association of American Railroads-Technical Test Center at Pueblo, Colorado. We learned a great deal with our first tests and were compelled by the potential benefits to continue the studies. Time constraints prevent the presentation of all the procedures, techniques and the many vari- ables encountered during the studies of equipment, grease and rail wear. However, it is important to understand that much equipment and grease improvement was required before rail lubrication bene- fits could be monitored through rail metal loss. Also, note that the test site length grew as we suc- cessfully extended grease carry for proper lubrication. Grease carry that deposits on the rail head instead of the gauge face and comer does not provide metal wear protection and, therefore, was not a factor in determining carry distance. The selected test site is an example of grease deposited on the rail in a non-productive manner The test site (Exhibit 1) is a single track of 1993 vintage Nippon 136RE premium rail with 65 MGT traffic that is 95% one direction (eastbound loaded coal trains, mixed freight and grain trains). Train movement is from MP-V298.5 through MP-V295.5 with an ascending grade of 0.10%. Locations to monitor curvature high rail wear were established at (orange marks): Milepost Rail Curvature Description V298.5 Tangent Lubricator V298.3 North 9.3-deg R Lst curve after lubricator, 0.2 miles V297.8 South 6.0-deg L Lst curve after lubricator, 0.7 miles V296.0 North 4.0-deg R Last curve in test site, 2.5 miles A lubricator installed at V297. 1 was removed from service so that baseline wear rates for unlu- bricated rail could be established at V296.0. When we started, grease was being carried intermittently from the lubricator into the curve bodies of the: 1 . 9-degree curve for 0.3 miles on the high rail (aprox. 0.3 miles including tangent on north rail). 2. A similar distance on the high rail of the 6-degree curve (total carry of 0.7 miles including tangent and low rail of the 9-degree curve). ♦A.ss'i. Manager — Chemical Technology, NS. 67 68 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association in O) CM > o ai in <o CO ■♦-' O) (/) ^ 0 > Q) r "D -*-> C r -) n) o n to CO o 0) O + in o 1 c CD o ■D ■«-' m u I- a> O ■D O St (0 z o 0) (D *i *i c. 1- (0 (0 (U lii Q. 0) 2 (D o 8 O 3 8 3 " i« 0) o 'k. O Last test; HI Q _2 2 ^ ^ LU t£. 3 q: ^ or 1- O) O) C3) < 0) (D <D ID ■o •u T3 CO O O O ai CO "^ _J 3 2 o o o z CO Z H (0 o Q. CO CO o LU 00 h-^ (b _l o^ 05 o> CM CNJ CM :s > > > Exhibit 1 Trackside Lubrication Study Whitethorne District Milepost V295.7 to V298.5 Paper b\ D. E. Cregger W Improvements to equipment and grease resulted in consistent liihrication /protection 3.0 miles from the lubricator. This surprised us. but even more amazing is that the grease consumption was reduced by 30'7c. A tribometer was used to a limited extent to confirm presence of lubrication. We quickly found that the presence of a low co-eftlcient of friction reading did not indicate that the gauge face was pro- tected from wear. Every wheel was not being lubricated while passing the trackside lubricator. Dry wheels were found to be wiping away lubrication and wearing away gauge face metal (Exhibit 2). Once this mechanism was recognized, we realized that the rail is the working grease reservoir. Grease maintained on the gauge face must be adequate to furnish rail gauge face lubrication and sup- ply sufficient grease volume for transfer to dry wheel flanges. The volume of grease required on the rail gauge face is dependent on the efficiency of the wiping bars and the pumping system. The effectiveness of this lubrication method was determined by using a Starrett dial indicator and a measuring frame manufactured by Track Renewal Engineering. Inc. to measure rail wear (Exhibit 3). The following analysis focuses on the high rail gauge face wear of the three points mon- itored for rail wear. Rail dimension measurements were collected 42 times in a 678 day interval (Exhibit 4). The AAR wear rates (noted at the bottom of the table) for differing lubrication conditions developed by Elkins et al-1984 were used as guidelines to describe lubrication conditions as related to gauge face rail wear. The semi-dry wear rate (wear in the presence of grease deposited somewhere on the rail head and face) was determined for each inspection point. Note that the semi-dry wear rate will vary w ith the operational and location conditions of each railroad. P ** ^^^^i^war Exhibit 2 Grease Consumed by Dry Wheels 70 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Enjiineerini; Association Exhibit 3 Track Renewal Engineering, Inc. Rail Gage TABLE 1; COMPARISON OF CURVES AND SITE WEAR RATES (Basis is Semi-Dry Rail) CURVE, LOCATION, CONDITION 9.3R V298.3, .IN 100-MGT 9.3R % 6.0L V297.8, IN 100-MGT 6.0L % 4.0R V296.0, IN 100-MGT 4.0R % SITE AVG, IN 100-MGT SITE AVG % LUBRICATED RAIL 0.0284 14 0.0057 3 0.0200 6 0.0180 7 PROFILE GROUND 0.0348 17 0.0207 10 0.0396 11 0.0317 13 SUMMATION 0.0632 31 0.0264 13 0.0596 17 0.0497 20 REDUCTION 0.1390 69 0.1861 87 0.2888 83 0.2047 80 SEMI-DRY 0.2022 100 0.2125 100 0.3484 100 0.2544 100 AAR WEAR RATE DEFINITIONS: (INCHES PER 100 MGT) Dry Rail 0.5000 Low Lubrication O.IOOO Medium Lubrication 0.0290 High Lubrication 0.0064 Exhibit 4 Paper by D. E. Cregger 7 1 Therefore, for this presentation the wear rate will be referenced as NS Semi-Dry. As we improved lubrication performance, wear rates for lubricated wear and the effect of rail profile grind- ing on gauge face wear was measured. The difference between semi-dry and the combination of lubricated and profile grind wear is the potential improvement. It is interesting to note that we dupli- cated AAR High Lube conditions at the 6-degree curve (6L-V297.8) test location. Graphically displayed (Exhibit 5), the four tallest bars (NS Semi-Dry Rail) represent the gauge face wear of the rail after equipment improvements made consistent operation possible. With further improvements in equipment and grease formulations, lubricated gauge face wear in all the test loca- tions, the first bar shown for each location, was reduced to at least AAR Medium Lube. Analysis of data collected allowed us to define the gauge face wear effect of rail profile grinding, the second bar shown at each location. The benefit of gauge face lubrication was negated for 30-60 days after rail profile grinding. Gauge comer relief removed the rail geometry necessary for grease transfer to the rail face. The grease migrated along the wheel profile and deposited at the gauge side of the rail crown. Gauge face lubrication was renewed when rail wear created the appropriate rail and wheel geometry for proper grease transfer. Additional data processing as shown in Exhibit 6 revealed another segment of gauge face wear that is variable to operating conditions, the vertical striped segment of each bar at each location. This segment is wear from conditions beyond the response range of the trackside lubricator/grease com- bination. These variations include weather, operational limitations of lubricator equipment, grease properties, maintenance intervals, and train operations that do not match the track plan. The 22% wear due to variable operating conditions in the 9-degree curve (at point 9.5R, V298.3) is heavily related to train movements below planned track speed (underbalanced). A signal is positioned 100 yards prior to the trackside lubricator at V298.5 and STOP signals are common at this location. The 16% wear due to variable operating conditions in the 4-degree curve (at point 4R, V296.0) is more related to factors that influence the grease carry. The remaining segment, the top part of each bar at each location, of gauge face wear is perma- nent potential savings. The application of proper equipment and compatible grease reduces gauge face wear. The average wear reduction for the test track is 63% or 0.1623 inches per 100 MGT. The natural question this information generates from anyone dealing with a budget is "How much money does it save?" To simplify and bring to a common denominator, this pie chart (Exhibit 7) shows wear segment comparisons with lubrication conditions defined as AAR Dry Rail (0.5 inches/ lOOMGT). For each dollar of rail gauge face wear cost per 100 MGT, the cost per segment is reflected by the related percentage noted. The potential savings, assuming dry rail conditions initially, are 81.71 cents per dollar of your actual rail gauge face wear cost based on new rail cost FOB plant. Note that, if the rail is profile ground more than once per 100 MGT, the additional cost of grind wear must be deducted from potential savings. This savings prediction is conservative. AAR Dry Rail is defined as a wear range of 0.5 - 0.7 inches per 100 MGT. All calculations were based on 0.5 inches per 100 MGT. Your dry rail wear may be greater than reflected in this analysis. The next quesfion expected is "How did you do it?" We had to learn that our trackside lubrica- tion arrangements were not performing to expectations: 1. Each passing wheel is not lubricated by current designs of trackside lubricators. In cold weather, 30-45 cars must pass before the lubrication system is adequately pressurized to sup- ply grease through the wiping bar ports. 2. There are great efficiency differences among actuator/pump designs. The design that best provides constant grease pressure results in less waste grease. 3. Grea.se formulations must be compatible with the equipment operation. The physical char- acteristics of the grease after being pumped through the lubricator system must support the formation of a grease column at the wiping bar port that transfers the grea,se to the passing wheel flange. New grease formulations were developed for NS applications. 72 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association in d S3H0NI 'dV3/\A 3AllVini/\in00V Exhibit 5 Rail Gauge Face Wear Rate Per 100 MGT Test Site MP V298.5-V295.7 Paper by D. E. Creeger 73 •i B a. % •8 CD ^ CO ^ w LU LU > q: O < DC 111 Cl 2 s 1 1- CJ z D o 1— q: o< O X LU _l u. O 5 (0 w ^\- cr: o U) CL _l O ^^^B ^^^H GL ^^^H H^^H LU ^^^g H|^H _l ^^^M HIHI ^ 0) £J O 2: 1- «< Q fe IXI 5q; O y r ) < OL O z > < 1— £t UJ -) $ HI o Q LU Q. O 1- LU < _l o OQ Qi < n m q: ^ _l ^ q: in O) — ^^ - ioi/M-ooi /S3H0NI 'av3M 3Aiivnni/Mnoov Exhibit 6 NS Semi-Dry Rail Gauge Face Wear Components 74 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association POTENTIAL SAVINGS (81.71%) (3.50%) tif^^ (8.56%) Lubricated Wear Profile Grind & Wear Variable Operating Conditions Loss Without Improvements Exhibit 7 Wear Cost/100 MGT with AAR Dry Rail Curves > 3.5-Deg at Mill Cost Net Scrap TABLE 2: *WIPING BAR - PORT DESIGN PERFORMANCE: LARGE PORT SMALL PORT BLOCKS Grease Carry Distance in Test Site, AVG % of Site Protected 48.2 100 69.2 Waste Grease Collected (2 wheel turns), %, range with various arr£ingements 24.4-38.0 10.1-32.0 75.5 Grease Consumed, Pounds/ MGT-Mile 46.0 15.2 92.4 ♦Portec MC-3 wiping bars were modified to small ports and compared to the standard MC-3 design. Exhibit 8 TABLE 3 ; LUBRICATOR ARRANGEMENT PERFORMANCE COMPARISON SUPPLIER RATING A 45 B 59 C 72 D 96 Exhibit 9 Paper by D. E. Creeger 75 4. Wiping bar design is critical to successful track gauge face lubrication (Exhibit 8). Portec MC-3 wiping bars were compared with M&S Blocks and modified MC-3 wiping bars. The modified bars were equipped with a manifold divider that decreased the port size and dou- bled the number of ports. The test site was monitored for the amount of grease consumed, waste grease collected at the lubricator site, and grease carry distance. These data were processed to include all the parameters of each setup for a direct comparison (Ibs/MGT-mile) of grease used per MGT of traffic movement for one mile. The small port design performed better than the .standard MC-3 design by a factor of 3X and 6X better than M&S Blocks. Note that the grease must be compatible with the lubricator equipment. After good lubrication patterns had been established and maintained, various suppliers' equip- ment arrangements and mixtures of suppliers' equipment were comparison tested in actual service. A rating system (Exhibit 9) was developed from the many measured parameters deemed important to NS operations. Equipment arrangement performance was found to have a very large range. In conclusion, we at Norfolk Southern view proper trackside lubrication as a continuing source of opportunity. The work we have done only improves the performance of old technology. We are hopeful that the 21st century brings us lubrication methods representative of current and future tech- nology. Reference Elkins, J. A., Reiff, R.P., and Rhine P.E., "Measurement of Lubrication Effectiveness", 1984. • Digs, loads, lifts and grades. • Gets to the job at 55 mph. Best-built, hardest working model in the popular 3/4 cu.yd size. • Rail gear • Train line air • AAR couplers • Axle Vtda for lift stability off-rail American products built to last • Dependable diesel power Detroit Diesel, upper structure - Cummins, carrier • Erqonomic cab design with joystick controls P.O. Box 798, Airport Industrial Parit • Winona, MN 55987 • Phone (507) 454-8549 - Fax (507 )454-3326 Call or fax for detailed specifications, capacities and performance options. StarTrmk? The railroad problem in your backyard might seem as tough as building a line on the moon. A&K welcomes your railroad material problems as our challenges. A&K provides more than just materials. We offer real "Rail Solutions". A&K problem solvers understand that we need to do more than offer quality new and relay track materials, welding services, panelizing, accessories and track removal. We must also give the best service. A&K does it all. A&K has it all. Even if your rail problems seem as big as the universe ... A&K's "Track Stars" will find an on-time solution. Call an A&K problem solver today. © 1993 A&K Railroad Materials Inc. A&K Railroad Materials, Inc. Corporate Headquarters 1 505 South Redwood Road P.O. Box 30076 Salt Lake City, Utah 84130 Phone: (801) 974-5484 or Toll Free: (800) 453-8812 FAX: (801) 972-2041 RAIL SOLUTIONS On-Time!. ..On-Track! Mi (^ THE PHILOSOPHY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AREA SEISMIC DESIGN CRITERIA By: Kenneth L. Wammel*, Zolan Prucz** and Roger S. Boraas*** Abstract Formulation of seismic design criteria for railroads, as part of the American Railway Engi- neering (AREA) Manual of Standard Practice, is a recent and ongoing development. The philosophy of railroad managements regarding post seismic event disruptions to operations and acceptable struc- tural damage can differ from that of highway departments or other public agencies. The objective of AREA Committee 9 is to establish a performance based approach to seismic design of railroad struc- tures, that incorporates three levels of ground motion and considers the ability of railroads to control post seismic event operations. Introduction For several decades, earthquake related damage has received significant attention. Seismic events can and have occurred in most areas of North America. In particular, the western United States continues to experience noticeable seismic events almost on a daily basis. Some highway and build- ing failures have been extensive, with many fatalities. This has prompted considerable interest within the engineering profession and has triggered political interest and some legislation. During past earthquakes, railway structures have generally performed very well with a few bridges suffering major damage but most receiving only minor, superficial or no damage. However, becau.se of the attention given to highway failures, railroad .structural survival was generally over- looked until recently. Public agencies have been pressuring railroads into incorporating seismic designs, for new con.struction and retrofit applications, based on highway criteria. In some cases, leg- islation has been pas.sed mandating various seismic designs be implemented into railroad structures. Railroad bridge engineers have always been vitally interested in maintaining reliability in their infra- structure to ensure safety of passengers, customers' goods, employees and the public at large. The dif- ference in response of highway and railroad structures to earthquake forces promoted considerable debate on the application of engineering principles to designs. But, until recently, almo.st no research had been conducted to study railroad structural behavior The fact that railroad structures have his- torically survived seismic events, when adjacent highway .structures failed completely, has not been adequately considered in addressing new design requirements. Typical railroad bridges in North America are very simple in their design and construction. They have relatively short spans and large pier or cap top areas that allow for considerable longitu- dinal and lateral movements. The design live load to dead load ratio, for railroad bridges, is signifi- cantly higher than live load to dead load ratios for other bridge .structures. The longitudinal and lat- eral design load requirements provide for a strong and stiff structure. In addition, the track structure provides longitudinal continuity over piers and abutments that restrains and dampens superstructure longitudinal movements. Railroad bridge designs are usually not restricted by geometric constraints, as are highway interchange bridges for example, and their configurations are mainly based on struc- tural and functional criteria. The performance requirements for railroad bridges, such as the acceptable damage and restora- tion of service time, can vary with the bridge type, location, replacement value, inspection and main- * Chic!' Engineer .Structures, Union Pacific Railroad, Omaha. NE. * A.s.sociatc. Modjcski and Ma,stcr.s. Inc.. New Orlcan.s. LA "Diivclor .StiTjctures Design. Union Pacific RaiUoad. Omaha. NE 77 78 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Icnance procedures, detour availability, type of service and bridge occupancy rate. For example, depending on train speed and operating practices of a particular railroad, vertical and/or lateral dis- placement of a few inches could be within acceptable limits. Most railroad bridges have a very low live load occupancy rate (typically less than 5% for a heavy haul line). A centralized signal and communication .system that can control train movements allows for an effective railroad post seismic event response. Warning systems such as motion detec- tors, inclinometers and other devices may also be tied in to the signal system to assi.st in determining the need for in.spections and/or train movement restrictions. Some railroads have connections with various .seismic and geological centers that provide early data on seismic activities. The low occu- pancy rate and the ability of the railroad to stop or reduce the speed of traffic over a particular seg- ment of track until inspections are made are important factors, unique to railroad bridges, that need to be incorporated in the seismic design and evaluation criteria. In 1994, a group of "volunteers", from the AREA structural committees, met to discuss the issue of seismic design of railroad structures. The AREA Manual did not address the issue and there was interest among railroad engineers and designers of railroad structures to understand the historical record of bridge response to seismic events. Also, there were increasing pressures from some gov- ernmental agencies for railroads to accept seismic designs and retrofits based on highway bridge characteristics and research. This ad-hoc committee produced a general basis for what is now Chapter 9. Committee 9 was formed to further develop and refine the ad-hoc committee's work. Performance Based Approach to Seismic Design The purpose of Chapter 9 is to provide a framework to evaluate the effect of seismic forces on railroad bridge structures and help reduce damage to railway facilities. The objectives were estab- lished as follows: 1. Evaluate past experience. 2. Develop post seismic event operation procedures based on historical precedent and compat- ible with structure performance. 3. Establish well-defined performance requirements that account for the unique features of rail- road structures. 4. Establish analysis requirements consistent with current methods of railroad structure evalu- ation and design. 5. Allow flexibility to address the specific condition, value and importance of a structure. 6. Provide a basis for more detailed analysis for special projects. 7. Promote research and testing to validate past experience and support any new design requirements. 8. Provide flexibility for future code updates. To achieve these objectives, a three-level ground motion and performance criteria approach, consistent with railroad post seismic event response procedures, was developed, as shown in Table 1 . Table 1. Three-Level Ground Motion and Performance Criteria Approach to Seismic Design Railroad Ground Performance Methods of Analysis Response Motion Criteria Limit Methods of Analysis Level Level State and Detailing II I Serviceability Elastic III 2 Ultimate Capacity/Conceptual III 3 Survivability Conceptual Paper by Kenneth L. Wammel, Zolan Prucz and Roger S. Boraas 79 Each ground motion level is associated with specific bridge performance requirements and a specific railroad response level. Table 1 shows the railroad response level and the performance crite- ria limit state in relation to the ground motion level. Guidelines for railroad response after an earth- quake, and analysis and design approaches for satisfying each performance criteria limit state, are recommended. The railroad response levels consider the earthquake magnitude and distance from railroad facilities and are described more fully in Chapter 9. Ground Motion Levels The ground motion levels reflect the seismic hazard at the site and are directly related to the design (or evaluation) earthquake loads. They are defined in terms of expected peak ground acceler- ation values associated with a given average return period. Several acceleration coefficient maps may be used to interpolate for a selected ground motion return period. The average return period for each ground motion level is determined based on acceptable risk criteria and .structure importance classi- fication, as shown in Table 2. Table 2. Ground Motion Levels for Seismic Design Ground Structure Motion Acceptable Importance Return Period Level Description Risk Criteria Classification (Years) 1 Moderate Life Safety 1-4 5-100 2 Large Economics 1-4 200-500 ^ Severe Economics 1-4 1000-2400 Ground Motion Level 1 represents a moderate earthquake with a reasonable probability of being exceeded during the life of the structure. After such an earthquake, trains may proceed at restricted speeds until inspections are completed and track released for full speed operation. Therefore, the design criteria for Ground Motion Level 1 needs to ensure that the structure is safe and serviceable immediately after the earthquake. Ground Motion Level 2 has a low probability of being exceeded during the life of the structure, and it represents a larger magnitude earthquake. Ground Motion Level 3 has a very low probability of being exceeded during the life of the structure, and it represents a rare and severe earthquake. Train traffic is stopped after both Ground Motions Levels 2 and 3 until property can be inspected, as per Railroad Response Level III. Therefore, for Ground Motion Levels 2 and 3, the performance and the acceptable risk criteria can be based mainly on eco- nomic considerations. Acceptable Risk Criteria Earthquakes are extreme events associated with a great amount of uncertainty and therefore risk considerations are an integral part of seismic design. The greatest source of uncertainty is associated with the regional seismicity and the expected ground motion characteristics at the site. Differences between the calculated and the actual seismic response of a structure also add to the general degree of uncertainty. To achieve a balance between seismic risk and costs associated with risk reduction, a certain amount of risk must be considered as acceptable, unless there is a severe social penalty as.so- ciated with structure failure. When determining acceptable risk levels, both life safety and economic aspects need to be con- sidered. Obviously, the amount of risk that may be acceptable for some bridge structures is greater than for others. Factors such as the volume and the type of train traffic, the value and the importance of the bridge and the cost of loss of use have to be included. Acceptable seismic risk levels must also be con- sistent with the risks due to other extreme events, such as flood, fire and vehicle or vessel collision. 80 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Structure Importance Classification The importance classification of a structure along with the acceptable risk considerations deter- mines the average ground motion return period to be used for the evaluation of each performance cri- teria limit state. It is expressed as a factor that can vary from 1 to 4 and includes the relative contri- butions of aspects related to bridge location, traffic over and under the bridge, the value of the bridge, and detour availability. Weighting factors for these contributions are assigned to each performance limit state. They may vary to represent specific railroad and project requirements. Structure Performance Criteria The structure performance criteria include the following limit states: Sennceability Limit State: The serviceability limit state contains restrictions on bridge stresses, deformations, vibrations and track misalignments due to a Level 1 Ground Motion. The structure is required to remain in the elastic range and only moderate damage, that does not affect the safety of trains at restricted speeds, is allowed. Ultimate Limit State: The ultimate limit state ensures overall structural integrity during a Level 2 Ground Motion. The strength and stability of critical members are of main concern. The structure is allowed to respond beyond the elastic range but displacement, ductility and detailing requirements need to be satisfied to reduce damage and loss of structure use. The damage should occur as intended in design, be readily detectable by visual inspection and accessible for repair. Sun'ivability Limit State: The survivability limit state is concerned with the survival of the bridge structure after a Level 3 Ground Motion. Extensive damage, short of bridge collapse, may occur. Structural and geometric safety measures, which add redundancy and ductility, are recommended to reduce the likelihood of collapse. Other measures designed to prevent collapse in case of serious damage, such as wide bear- ing support areas, catcher or backup systems, may be included. Depending on the importance and the replacement value of a bridge, an individual railroad may allow irreparable damage for the surviv- ability limit state, and opt for new construction. Conceptual Approach to Seismic Design Elastic analysis methods are recommended for satisfying the serviceability limit state and a conceptual approach is recommended for the ultimate and the survivability limit states. The concep- tual approach proposed consists of seismic guidelines regarding structure type, foundation type, con- figuration and layout, connections, materials, ductility, redundancy, deformation capability and fail- ure mode control. By using conceptual seismic design principles along with capacity design methods, the engineer can overcome many of the uncertainties involved in the ground motion description, the numerical analysis of structure response in the post yield range, and the limited analytical and exper- imental seismic research data on railroad bridges currently available. Existing Bridges The general seismic design criteria approach may be applied to existing bridges. However, some aspects are unique to existing bridges and require special consideration. First, to keep the ana- lytical efforts to a manageable size, a preliminary seismic screening is recommended to identify the most vulnerable bridges. Second, the selection of ground motion return periods, especially for Ground Motion Levels 2 and 3, should consider the age, value, load capacity and remaining service life of the bridge evaluated. Third, since the current state of knowledge of response analysis of exist- ing railroad bridges to severe ground motion is limited, field information and observations from pre- vious earthquakes are very important. Bridges selected for retrofit need to undergo a more detailed Paper by Kenneth L. Wammel, Zolan Prucz and Roger S. Boraas evaluation that includes the effects of the retrofit on the bridge response. The retrofits considered should address the cost-benefit of risk reduction, especially regarding the ultimate and the surviv- ability limit states. Current Committee Assigmnents Presently, the subcommittees of Committee 9 are working on the following topics: • Expansion and improvement of the Structure Importance Classification section • Expansion of design criteria for the serviceability limit state • Expansion of conceptual approach criteria for ultimate and survivability limit states • Definition and improvement of the preliminary screening to identify the existing bridges needing more detailed analysis • Development of a post seismic event inspection checklist • Development of general guidelines for retrofit designs Recently, a new assignment "Track Contribution to Seismic Response" has been undertaken by Subcommittee 2. It is a widespread belief that the track plays an important role in the excellent earth- quake survival record of railroad bridges. However, no current design criteria allow for that consid- eration because it cannot yet be quantified. Therefore, more testing and research of the role of track (or other aspects of bridges unique or predominant to railroads) in structural resistance to seismic loads is important for further development of detailed design and evaluation criteria. Without hard data, no design formula can accurately account for the positive contribution of the track. The Future The committee has currently focused much of its attention on bridges. The need to understand and quantify the differences between railroad and highway bridge response to seismic loading has been the driving force behind the committee's work. But other aspects of railroad infrastructure will also be addressed. Signal and communication facilities are very susceptible to failure from seismic events. Recommended practice for design of these facilities should be included. Building failures, subgrade failures and track geometry deviations are also part of the seismic scenario. However, build- ings and subgrades are not unique to the railroad and can be covered by many current design speci- fications. Track is a very flexible structure, easily restored, and it's response is heavily dependent on the subgrade reaction. At this time, it is not anticipated that any new criteria will be developed for track design. Recent discussions between the FRA and the Ministry of Transport of Japan may lead to an agreement for cooperative effort between the two countries. This will provide for information shar- ing and the formation of joint, engineering teams for post seismic event investigations into structural performance. Summary The seismic design and evaluation criteria recommended consider the unique structural and operating characteristics of railroad structures and the specific needs of railroad bridge owners. The approach used is based primarily on detailed performance requirements, and on conceptual design and detailing practices. The railroad post seismic event response procedures, along with the type and amount of acceptable damage for a given structure, are an integral part of the design and evaluation process. A three-level ground motion and performance criteria approach is employed to reduce train interruption and ensure structure serviceability after a moderate earthquake, minimize the cost of damage and loss of structure use after a large earthquake and prevent structure collapse after a very severe earthquake. Reliability. Durability. Low maintenance. These are key benefits you receive by investing in Miner's high quality railcar components. Backed by exhaustive R&D testing, comprehensive service analysis and over 100 years of actual rail experience, Miner products are components you con count on. 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Lewandowski** Abstract Fracture toughness testing was conducted on a number of railroad maintenance striking hand tools in order to determine their resistance to crack propagation in the presence of a flaw. Specimens for toughness testing were removed from different spike mauls as well as sledge hammers. In the former, four of the samples were removed from near the large end striking face of four different spike mauls. In the latter, four samples were taken from near each striking face of two different ten pound double faced sledge hammers. Samples containing a fine diamond wire saw notch established a notch tough- ness of 50.3 MPaVm (45.8 ksiVin) for one sledge sample and 66.0 MPaVm (60.1 k.siVin) for one maul sample. Fatigue precracking of the samples to produce a very fine crack prior to testing resulted in sub- stantially lower fracture toughness values. The average value for three precracked maul samples was 45.2 MPaVm (41.1 ksiVin) while the three precracked sledge samples establi.shed an average toughness of 31.5 MPaVm (28.7 ksiVin). The fracture toughness of AREA Grade B steel hand tools and some vari- ables that affect toughness is discussed. The importance of routine and reliable field tool inspections is highlighted due to the relatively low resistance of the steel to fast fracture when a crack is present. Introduction Sledge hammers and spike mauls are essential hand tools for track maintenance in the railroad industry. Although automated maintenance of way equipment has resulted in fewer employees now using such striking hand tools, there will always be the need for manual track repairs. Rail replace- inents, tie change outs, etc., insure that these tools will be around for many years. However, when these tools strike an off center blow, the chance of a chip or spall is greatly increased, since the impact contact area is very small and, therefore, the local stress is very high. The striking face contour, or comer radius, is particularly vulnerable to such damage. The resistance to spalling has been reported to be improved by utilizing a gentle, carefully blended contour (Ref. I). Conrail's Technical Services Laboratory examines sledge hammers and spike mauls which fail in service. Most often these tools have been in the field for an extended period of time and have cracking or deformation evident on the striking face or comer radius. Further impact loading during the use of the tool, particularly by an off center blow, often results in the fast fracture of a steel chip. Injuries to Conrail Maintenance of Way employees resulted in our investigation of the fracture tough- ness of the steel used in North American railroad sledges and mauls. Background The specifications which govern railroad percussion tools are contained in Chapter 5 (Track) of the American Railway Engineering Association's Manual for Railway Engineering (Ref. 2). The steel used in striking and stmck tools must be a Grade A or Grade B chemical composition, as shown in Table I. The more common alloy used today for sledges and spike mauls is AREA Grade B steel. This steel most closely matches the AISI 9260 designation, with vanadium and molybdenum added. The striking faces are required to have a hardness of 51 to 55 Rockwell C and this hardness specification is maintained to at least one half of an mch below the face. The tools are forged, quenched and tem- pered products produced by several manufacturers. Typical tensile test data provided by a manufac- turer and obtained on one cylindrical specimen taken from a spike maul and one cylindrical speci- * Moiallurgical Engineer. Conrail Technical Services Laboratory. Alloona. PA. **Prole.s.sor of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University. Cleveland. OH. 83 S4 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Table 1. AREA percussion hand tool chemistry specifications. Steel C Mn P S Si V Mo Grade Min Max Min Max Max Max Min Max Min Max Min Max A 0.56 0.64 0.75 1 .00 0.025 0.025 1.80 2.20 — — — — B 0.5 1 0.60 0.75 1.00 0.025 0.025 1.80 2.20 — 0.45 0.35 0.50 men taken from a sledge hammer are contained in Table 2 (Ref. 3). The threaded end tensile speci- mens were electrodischarge machined from the steel between the tool eye and outside wall diameter for each type of tool. No comparative evaluations of steel chemistry, cleanliness, microstructure, etc., were conducted in order to explain the large differences in sledge and maul sample properties. Although our sample size is very limited (one tensile sample for each tool type), it is possible that significant differences in raw materials and/or finished tools exist. It appears that an investigation of these variables may have benefits for industry. Scope of Evaluation One way to determine the fracture resistance of Grade B steel involves determining the fracture toughness on specimens containing a fatigue precrack in accordance with accepted procedures for fracture toughness testing. Subsequent comparisons of these fracture toughness values with those of other steels will provide information on the range of strength/hardness/toughness values available in other commercially available high strength steels. In addition, knowledge of the fracture toughness in combination with some estimate of the applied stresses enables an estimation of the critical crack size for catastrophic fracture. Experimental Procedure Four new spike mauls and two new ten pound sledge hammers were obtained from a group of tools on hand at Conrail. All tools were produced by the same manufacturer, Woodings-Verona Tools Works. Three point bend fracture specimens were machined from the large end of each spike maul and from both ends of the sledges. The samples were taken from just below the center of the striking face and parallel to it in each case. The specimens were electrodischarge machined with the crack propagation direction away from the striking face center into the body of the forged tool. Examinations Table 2. Spike maul and sledge hammer tensile test data. Tool Type Tensile Strength (psi) Yield Strength (psi) Percent Reduction In Area Percent Elongation Maul Sledge 221,000 256,000 176,000 214,000 25 18 8.5 7 Table 3. Tool and sample identification data. Tool Fracture Sample I.D. Year and Month Tool Produced Sledge 1 lA, IB August, 1993 Sledge 2 2A, 2B December. 1994 Maul 1 1 October, 1995 Maul 2 2 October, 1995 Maul 3 3 October. 1995 Maul 4 4 December, 1995 Paper by C. P. Lonsdale and J. J. Lewandowski of fractured hammers and spike mauls often show that cracks start at the comer radius adjacent to the striking face. However, it was felt that the precracked samples would provide an adequate measure- ment of the steel's toughness. Table 3 contains tool and sample identification data. The general dimensions of the four sledge hammer and four spike maul toughness specimens are shown schemat- ically in Figure I . Prior to any testing, the sides of the specimens were polished to a mirror finish to aid in crack detection. In order to first determine an estimate of the fracture toughness, one (1) toughness speci- men of the sledge hammer and the spike maul were tested in the notched condition (i.e. no fatigue precrack) in three point bending. The notch was placed in the top surface of the toughness specimen using a slow speed diamond impregnated wire saw, producing a notch root radius of approximately 50 mm. These specimens were notched to a depth aAV of approximately 0.4. A clip gage was placed across the notch opening in order to record the notch opening displacement during testing. Tests were conducted on a servo-hydraulic testing machine operated under displacement controlled conditions at a displacement rate of 0.5 mm/min, while both the load and the notch opening displacement were recorded. At the conclusion of the test, the peak load achieved prior to catastrophic fracture was used to estimate the toughness in the manner outlined in ASTM E-399. The remaining six sledge hammer and spike maul specimens were each notched to an aAV = 0.25-0.33 prior to fatigue precracking, in an attempt to conduct fracture toughness testing on fatigue precracked specimens, in general accordance with the procedures outlined in ASTM E-399. Notching was again conducted with the slow speed wire saw, followed by fatigue precracking in accordance with ASTM E-399. In all ca.ses, attempts were made to precrack the specimens to an aAV = 0.40-0.65, in accordance with ASTM E-399. The outside surfaces of the toughness specimens were visually monitored during precracking in order to monitor the progression of the fatigue crack. Load shedding was conducted after the crack grew a specified amount in accordance with ASTM E-399. In some cases, the specimens failed during fatigue precracking. In those cases, the fatigue precrack length was noted via optical examination of the fracture surface and the toughness was calculated using the aAV and the peak load from the fatigue test. In other cases, the specimens were success- fully precracked and the fracture toughness test was conducted in accordance with ASTM E-399. Specimens successfully fatigue precracked were tested in three point bending with a clip gage placed :^<#ir Figure 1. Example dimensions and diagram of fracture toughness specimens. 86 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association across the crack mouth in order to monitor crack opening displacement. The loading rates and test procedures were as those outlined above. Results and Discussion The results of the toughness testing are shown in Table 4. The data clearly show that the pres- ence of a fatigue crack in the specimens produces a lower toughness than that when a notch is pre- sent. The notch produced with the diamond wire saw provided a notch root radius of about 50 mm, which is a less severe defect than that produced by a sharp fatigue crack. As expected and as obtained on many other materials, the toughness of the sledges dropped from 50.3 MPaVm (45.8 ksiVin) with the notch to an average value of 31.5 MPaVm (28.7 ksiVin) with the fatigue precrack. The notch toughness of the mauls was 66.0 MPaVm (60.1 ksiVin) while precracked specimens again exhibited a reduced toughness value. Although the spike mauls failed during precracking, the estimated tough- ness was as low as 34.9 MPaVm (31.8 ksiVin), somewhat higher than that obtained on the sledge hammer specimens. Although it is difficult to conduct .standard ASTM tests on such specimens because of their small size and difficulty in fatigue precracking, the results obtained on the notched specimens provide an estimate of the fracture toughness, while those obtained with the sharp fatigue precrack cleady show that the toughness is reduced when a sharp crack is present. There also appears to be a difference in both the notch toughness and precracked toughness between the sledge hammer and spike maul specimens. Assuming that identical starting material compositions are used, one potential source of this difference relates to the differences in manufac- ture of the two products. The finished spike maul section diameter on the large end (1% inches) is smaller than the finished section diameter of the ten pound sledge (2'/: inches). A review of the man- ufacturing process reveals that mauls are forged from a 2 inch diameter round bar whereas ten pound sledges are forged from 2Vi inches diameter round stock (Ref. 3). As such the reduction applied to the former material during forging is much greater than that applied to the latter. One manufacturer reported that a ten pound sledge receives only two forging blows during manufacture while a spike maul receives eight to ten forging blows (Ref. 3). Such differences in forging reduction could produce beneficial changes to the microstructure in the spike mauls that would affect the strength/toughness of the quenched and tempered material. The subsequent heat treatment of such tools and their different dimensions also produces a final hardness profile which is somewhat different for the two products, while changes to the tempering treatments could also produce changes to strength/toughness combi- nations possible in such materials. The spike mauls which contain the smaller section size should exhibit a more uniform microstructure and a high hardness should be maintained to a greater percent- age of the tool cross-section if both products were given an identical quench, prior to tempering. Table 4. Results of fracture toughness testing. Toughness Tool Type Sample I.D. Notch/Precrack Mpa Vm ksi Vin Sledge 1 lA Notch 50.3 45.8 Sledge 1 IB Precrack* 30.5 27.8 Sledge 2 2A Precrack 28.9 26.3 Sledge 2 2B Precrack 35.1 31.9 Average Value For Precracked Slec ge Samples 31.5 28.7 Maul 1 1 Notch 66.0 60.1 Maul 2 2 Precrack* 34.9 31.8 Maul 3 3 Precrack* 52.6 47.8 Maul 4 4 Precrack* 48.1 43.7 Average Value For Precracked Mai 1 Samples 45.2 41.1 Note: *Failed during precracking. Paper b\ C. P. Lonsdale and J.J. Lewandovvski 87 Figure 2 shows the macroetched structure of a commercial Grade B steel railroad spike maul which has been longitudinally sectioned (Ret'. 3). The top maul section is From the small end ( 1 % inches striking face diameter) while the bottom section is from the large end (1% inches diameter). The amount of visible centerline segregation is clearly greater in the larger end section. The smaller end that obtained more mechanical working during forging, does not exhibit a pronounced centerline streak. Such segregation, which results from solidification of the steel raw stock could then affect the frac- ture properties of railroad hand tools if such regions are loaded under high stress conditions. Such sites could be preferential sites for both crack initiation and growth. The estimates of precracked fracture toughness values reported in Table 4 enable one to esti- mate the combinations of stress and crack size which will produce catastrophic fracture in a struc- ture. In the case of the materials examined presently, it is assumed that a crack propagates inward from the surface of the hammer or spike maul in the manner approximated by the fracture toughness specimens tested. The general relation between the fracture toughness and the combinations of stress and crack size required to produce catastrophic fracture is summarized in the following equation: Kn = geometric factor x ct ( IT a) where K^ is the fracture toughness, a is the applied stress, and a is the crack length. Since this calculation is provided presently as an estimate, the geometric factor will be set equal to 1 . The equa- tion indicates that, for a given level of fracture toughness, an increase in the applied stress will reduce the critical flaw size for catastrophic fracture. The equation also indicates that an increase in the crack size present in a structure will reduce the stress that can be applied to the structure prior to cata- strophic fracture. As an example, assuming that a tensile stress equal to the yield strength of the tool material (e.g. 176 ksi) was applied to a tool material with toughness of approximately 33 MPaVm (30 ksi\'in). the critical flaw size required for catastrophic fracture would be approximately 0.24 mm Figure 2. Macroetched spike maul. 88 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association (0.00925 inches). Although the magnitude of the flaw size obtained by such a calculation will be affected by a number of variables beyond the scope of this report, it is clear that the combinations of stress and toughness cho.sen in the calculation produce a relatively small flaw size that is required for catastrophic fracture. This further suggests that frequent and careful inspections for such flaws before and after u.se might be beneficial in preventing chip spallation during use. The calculation above also indicates that improving the strength/toughness combinations of properties of a material will increase the critical flaw size in a given situation. For example, an increase in the toughness of the material to 65.9 MPaVm (60 ksiVin) while maintaining the same applied stress will produce an increase in the critical flaw size by a factor of 4, while a decrease in the toughness to 16.5 MPaVm (15 ksiVin) will reduce the critical flaw size by a factor of 4. Although detailed calculations of the stresses present during the use of such tools is necessary to refine the cal- culations noted above, the simple calculations provided indicate that inspection of tools should be conducted routinely, while the use of materials/heat treatments with higher strength/toughness com- binations may also be beneficial in the safe use of such tools. An additional concern with the use of such steel tools in cold weather environments, is the reduction in fracture toughness that typically accompanies testing a steel at temperatures below room temperature. Such a reduction in fracture toughness will reduce the critical flaw size, as summarized above. Finally, the dynamic fracture toughness obtained under impact conditions is often lower than that obtained under static conditions as that conducted presently. Preliminary testing at Conrail using a ten pound sledge hammer and instrumented drift pin has shown that very high peak forces are experienced during hand tool impact. The average force imparted by a man during a series of blows was approximately 37,000 pounds. When the force of a blow is converted to an axial stress at the striking face contact area (e.g. '/« square inches, 0.2 inches circular radius) this will lead to severe stresses in excess of the steel's yield stress. This then results in high radial tensile stresses which can be estimated using poisson's ratio and the modulus of elas- ticity. Provided that the stress is centered and uniformly applied to the striking face, damage will likely be of a compressive, peening nature. However, when a glancing blow is struck by a user, par- ticularly at the tool's corner radius, the area of contact is smaller, the stresses are greater and the like- lihood of crack nucleation and/or growth leading to fast fracture is increased. Conrail has recently begun a test program using the Hammer Impact Tester (HIT), an electro- pneumatic test apparatus that is able to repeatedly strike a percussion hand tool on various surfaces (drift pin, spike, etc.). Initial calibration efforts have focused on making sure that the device imparts a blow similar to that of a man. The testing is expected to provide additional information with regard to impact stresses, critical allowable flaw size and tool impact fatigue life under various conditions. Finally, the factors which control the strength and toughness of steels are quite complex, although a listing of some typical properties for some common steels is provided in ASM Handbook - Volume 19 (Ref. 4). An inspection of such information indicates that a range of strength/toughness combinations are possible in a variety of available steels. A remaining issue involves the relative cost of such materials for use in tool applications as well as the effects of changes in test temperature on the strength/toughness properties. It may be useful to review the material selection and service expe- rience of such tools in the light of the above concepts. Concluding Remarks It is clear from the fracture toughness results and estimated critical flaw size calculations that routine and reliable field inspections of the sledge hammers and spike mauls used by railroad main- tenance of way employees is important to the safe use of such tools. Given the relatively low frac- ture toughness of currently produced, commercially available, percussion hand tools, and the small crack size that can produce fast fracture in a tool under loading, it is apparent that even a small flaw can lead to a chip or spall. It is strongly recommended that all railroad hand tools be inspected for Paper by C. P. Lonsdale and J. J. Lewandowski 89 nicks, dents, chips, spalls, cracks, etc., particularly on the striking face and corner radius. Careful inspections of tools before, during and after use by tool users, along with detailed, regular tool inspec- tions by supervisors, will help insure that defective tools are removed from .service and replaced. Additional efforts to improve railroad hand tools can focus on the many variables which affect the fracture toughness of high strength steel. Forging processes, alloy, heat treatment, steel cleanli- ness and segregation, etc., are potential areas for improvement. A joint initiative between tool man- ufacturers and the railroad industry (perhaps AREA Committee 5) to make tools safer for field employees will have lasting benefits. Issues such as alloy commercial availability and cost should also be addressed. References Mclntire, H.O. and Hall, A.M. 1962. The performance of hand-striking tools under simulated service conditions. Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, Ohio. Unpublished report. American Railway Engineering Association. AREA 1996. Specification for track tools. Washington, D.C. McShane, J. 1996. Private communication, Woodings- Verona Tool Works, Verona, PA. Tensile tests and photography conducted by Industrial Testing Laboratory Services Corporation, Pittsburgh, PA. Unpublished results. Lampman, S.R. 1996. ASM Handbook. Volume 19 — Fatigue and Fracture, ASM International, Materials Park. Ohio. pp. 621-624. Canada "^ Canada Sydney Rails For Quality Track • Premium Wear-Resistant Head Hardened Rails • Standard Carbon, Intermediate Strength and Pre- mium Alloy Grades-all using clean steel practice. • All National and International specifications, including A.R.E.A., C.N.R., BS-11 and U.I.C. • Sections from 50 to 70 kilograms per metre (100 to 136 pounds per yard). • Lengths up to 26 metres (85 feet). • More than eighty years of experience supplying world markets. For additional information, write, wire or call: Vice President, Sales Sydney Steel Corporation Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada B1P6K5 Telephone: (902)564-7910 Telefax: (902) 564-7903 Telex: 019-35197 B SYDNEY STEEL CORPORATION IF YOU BELIEVE... ...problems have solutions. If you value performance over price. And, if you want service and innovative ►roducts tliat vetrac' w-?^P' PAIMPROU PANDROL INCORPORATED 501 Sharptown Road P.O. Box 367 Bridgeport, N J 08014 (609) 467-3227 90 THE POTENTIAL OF THE CFS MOW ESTIMATING RELATIONSHIPS AS A BASIS FOR COST ALLOCATION By: Duncan W. Allen, P.E.* Abstract Many recent proposals for improved intercity and commuter passenger rail transportation include the assumption that the improved service will make use of existing trackage, or improved trackage in existing right-of-way. These existing corridors often carry moderate to heavy freight traf- fic, and may already be carrying passenger trains. Until 1996, estimates of the likely costs for such track use by the passenger train operator were often based on the agreements between Amtrak and individual railroad companies which had prevailed since Amtrak's inception in 1971. With the expira- tion of the original Amtrak agreement, and the increase in the number of proposed commuter rail oper- ations, renewed attention is focusing on both the incremental maintenance of way (MOW) costs for pas- senger train operation, and on how to reflect the impact of passenger operations on line capacity. The Federal Railroad Administration's Commercial Feasibility Study (CFS) was confronted with the task of making complete operating and maintenance (O&M) cost estimates for proposed use of freight railroad trackage for "Accelerail" passenger services in the 90-150 mph range, including MOW costs. Rather than "borrow" from existing agreements or formulas, the CFS developed an independent, resource build-up approach to the estimation of dozens of separate MOW activities. The total costs built up from the individual cost estimating relationships exhibit certain characteristic rela- tionships to both line density and operating speed, which can be expressed mathematically. This paper summarizes the structure and assumptions of the MOW component of the CFS model, and compares the general nature of the results to two existing bases which have been used by prior operating agreements: speed factored gross tonnage (SFGT) and weighted system average cost (WSAC). The CFS formulation employs a more complex form, and uses the maximum authorized speed (MAS) for passenger train service as a determinant in addition to tonnage. The proposed for- mulation of incremental MOW costs resulting from adding Accelerail-type passenger service to an existing traffic base: (I) avoids the shortcomings identified with older formulas; (2) incorporates insights based on the CFS research; and (3) offers a modular framework for estimating mixed traffic MOW costs. Introduction Many recent proposals for improved intercity and commuter passenger rail transportation assume that the improved service will make use of existing trackage, or of improved trackage in existing right-of-way. These existing corridors often carry moderate to heavy freight traffic, and may already be carrying passenger trains. Until 1996, estimates of the likely costs for such track use by the passenger train operator (PTO) were often based on the agreements between Amtrak and indi- vidual railroad companies which had prevailed since Amtrak's inception in 1971. With the expiration of the original Amtrak agreement, and the increase in the number of proposed commuter rail opera- tions, renewed attention is focusing on both the incremental maintenance of way (MOW) costs for pas.senger train operation, and on how to reflect the impact of passenger operations on line capacity. This paper does not address the issue of capacity, which is an important issue in its own right. The Federal Railroad Administration's Commercial Feasibility Study ( 1 ) (CFS) was confronted with the task of making complete operating and maintenance (O&M) cost estimates for proposed use of freight railroad trackage for "Accelerail" passenger services in the 90-150 mph range, including 'Principal Transporlaliiin Enjjinccr. Dc Lcuw. Calhcr & Company 91 92 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association MOW costs. Rather than "borrow" from existing agreements or formulas, the CFS developed an inde- pendent, resource build-up approach to the estimation of dozens of separate MOW activities. The total costs built up from the individual cost estimating relationships (CERs) exhibit certain characteristic relationships to both line density and operating speed, which can be closely approximated by formulas. This paper summarizes the structure and assumptions of the MOW component of the CFS model, and compares the general nature of the results to two existing bases that have been used by prior oper- ating agreements: speed factored gross tonnage (SFGT) and weighted system average cost (WSAC). CFS MOW Methodology CERs were developed for 21 individual MOW accounts as shown in Table 1. The principal sources of information to build each CER were expert opinion and secondary sources specific to each account. For those CERs where expert opinion differed significantly, the so-called "Delphi tech- nique" was employed to reach a synthesis of these opinions. Aggregate cost data from both the rail- roads' Form I reports to the Federal Railroad Administration, and rail transit operators' "Section 15" statistical reports to the Federpl Transit Administration (FTA) were used primarily to validate the CERs at a higher (i.e., account) level. Although there is considerable scope for more research on many of the CER accounts, an effort was made to validate as many individual CERs as possible against either available data from specific railroads, or against more detailed transit system data pub- lished by the FTA (2). In the specific case of the effort required to maintain track to higher operating speed and comfort standards for passenger service, three major secondary sources were used: Pier and Campbell's 1993 paper on vertical dynamic forces (3), Senac's 1984 paper on the French national railway's HSR experience (4), and the tariff structure (5) of the new German railroad infrastructure operating entity, Deutsche Bahn AG. It proved possible to derive a mathematical framework incor- porating the effects of the first two sources, which was validated by the third. The process for developing HSR MOW CERs was as follows: • Break down the item, if appropriate, into component activities. The breakdown used is shown in Table 1 . • For each component, obtain one or more expert opinions on the frequency of the activity under various rail traffic scenarios selected to "bracket" the likely range of CFS corridor sce- narios, and on the resources necessary to conduct the activity on a unit basis. • Develop a mathematical relationship to express the component activities' frequencies in terms of a number of potential explanatory variables, including: MGT (millions of gross tons) of freight and passenger train traffic over a track segment; the MASs (maximum authorized speeds) at which passenger and freight trains are operated; the fraction of track on tangent alignment; and the fraction of track with concrete ties. • Apply the mathematized frequencies to the expert-estimated unit labor consumption of each activity for a wide range of HSR speed and traffic combinations, summing the results for the components within each item. • Fit a mathematical expression to the summed results with regression techniques, using one of a small set of predefined parameterized forms. The most frequently used form of expression was the "MAS/MGT' formula, which took the generic form: Resources per track-mile = a -t- (b -i- cMAS) (d -i- MGT)*^ The parameters a, b, c, d, and e in this expression were estimated separately for each CER. In several cases, separate CERs were defined for labor and materials, and it was generally found that a separate set of parameters was required for each high-speed rail (HSR) technology option evaluated, because of the consists' different weights and configurations. Paper by D. Allen 93 Table 1. MOW Activities in CFS and their Components Item Activity Component(s) 1201 Guidevvay physical inspection (curved track- concrete tie) physical inspection 1202 Guideway physical inspection (curved track- non-concrete tie) physical inspection 1203 Guideway physical inspection (tangent track- concrete tie) physical inspection 1204 Guideway physical inspection (tangent track- non-concrete tie) physical inspection 1205 Guideway routine repair (curved track-concrete tie) weld surface defects, replace failed weld, spot surface, surface out of face, clean shoulder, clean under concrete tie, renew pads & insulators, renew insulated joints, replace failed concrete ties 1206 Guideway routine repair (curved track- weld surface defects, replace non-concrete tie) failed weld, spot surface, surface out of face, clean shoulder, renew insulated joints, replace failed wood ties 1207 Guideway routine repair (tangent track-concrete tie) weld surface defects, replace failed weld, spot surface, surface out of face, clean shoulder, clean under concrete tie, renew pads & insulators, renew insulated joints, replace failed concrete ties 1208 Guideway routine repair (tangent track- non-concrete tie) physical inspection 1209 Guideway physical inspection (grade crossings) physical inspection 1210 Guideway repair (grade crossings) routine repair 1211 Guideway physical inspection (high speed switch) physical inspection 1212 Switch repair (high-speed) spot surface high speed turnout 1213 Guideway physical inspection (low speed switch) physical inspection 1214 Switch repair (low-speed) spot surface low speed turnout 1215 Guideway electronic inspection geometry inspections, accelero- meter measurements, rail flaw inspection 1301 Guideway program maintenance rail renewal, "high" rail ("old" curved track-concrete tie) renewal, tie renewal 1302 Guideway program maintenance rail renewal, "high" rail ("old" curved track-non-concrete tie) renewal, tie renewal 1303 Guideway program maintenance rail renewal, ("old" tangent track-concrete tie) tie renewal 1304 Guideway program maintenance rail renewal. ("old" tangent track-non-concrete tie) tie renewal 1305 Guideway program maintenance ("old" high speed switch) turnout renewal 1306 Guideway program maintenance ("old" low speed switch) turnout renewal 94 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Aggregation of CFS MOW Results For the CFS, costs for all CERs were estimated by track segment for the corridors and options specified by the FRA. These estimates included situations where HSR was to operate on existing freight railroads, others where the HSR operation was on dedicated track owned by the HSR operator, and combinations thereof. Several options for contracting out selected MOW and other functions also were explored; the specific results of the CFS have been presented and discussed elsewhere ( I ), (6). For the purposes of cost allocation, the behavior of the CFS CERs for MOW is of interest for a "typical" railroad across a range of traffic densities. Figure 1 shows the total MOW costs for the activities shown in Table 1, exclusive of management and "overhead" general and administrative (G&A) expenses, for a representative freight-only railroad with between I and 30 annual MGT. This figure also shows the differential effect of adding a passenger high-speed rail (HSR) service to the corridor, both as a "flat" eight trains per day at a MAS of 125 mph, and as a five percent tonnage increment at 150 mph. The representative railroad is 70 percent on tangent, is 70 percent concrete ties, and is maintained for freight operation at 60 mph. Growth in the estimated MOW costs is slightly less than linear with MGT, i.e. small economies of scale in density are exhibited. This trend contin- ues to way high densities (e.g., 100 MGT). The CFS formulation makes it possible to distinguish two sources of incremental cost growth with the introduction of HSR service, as shown in Figure 2. In this figure, a high-frequency HSR ser- vice adding just over 2 MGT is introduced. The total increase in MOW costs can be associated in part with the increased tonnage; this "incremental tonnage effect" would be the incremental cost of the same increase in MGT if it were composed of the same classes of freight traffic already operating in the corridor. A second, larger, increase in MOW costs is related to the increased passenger train oper- ating speed, and the requirement to maintain superior ride quality at these speeds on track used by freight trains. ■ 100% Freight® 60 mph « w/ 8 Ipd HSR @ 125 mph A 5% tonnage HSR @ 150 Annual Density (MGT) Figure 1. Example Aggregate CFS Formula Results Paper by D. Allen 95 Figures 1 and 2 address total costs as estimated by the CERs for a representative railroad. As proposals for new passenger rail services on freight railroads continue to be made, attention has focused on the incremental, or marginal, costs of providing for such services, and on the economic value of the track capacity foregone by the freight railroad in accommodating them. The issue of capacity lies outside the scope of this paper; however, incremental costs can be estimated from the CERs by comparing the total costs at intervals along a range of traffic densities. Figure 3 shows the estimated incremental MOW costs in 1993 dollars for the representative freight-only railroad, including the overhead costs of management, MOW facilities, and G&A expense. These costs are presented on a per-thousand gross ton-mile basis. This figure also shows the incremental costs if a 1 10-mph HSR service is also operating on the railroad. Economies of .scale with density are evident, but become relatively small over 10 MGT, and approach negligibility over 25 MGT. A close fit to the CFS aggregate results, including the HSR, is represented by the expression: 0.635 0.772 (MGT -Hi)' (MGT -(-0.24)' An important point to bear in mind is that with the HSR service in place, the higher incremental cost applies to all traffic, including freight; with the introduction of HSR to a freight-only corridor, the differential between the two cost levels is in effect incurred "retroactively" on the freight traffic that was operating prior to the addition of HSR. This means that an incremental cost estimate using the CFS methods cannot be simply applied to the HSR traffic; in the CFS, the HSR operator was required to reimburse the freight railroad for the total incremental cost incurred by the freight traffic as well. Comparison with Previous Formulas As discussed by Resor (7) and others, two formulas for estimating incremental MOW costs have seen extensive use in the United States: the Speed Factored Gross Tonnage (SFGT) model. i 1 1 i r-^ - <- Speed and nde quality effect <- incremental tonnage effecl 1 Freight Only wilh HSR Annual Density (MGT) Figure 2. Example Effects of Introducing HSR 96 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association ■ Freight Only « With HSR Annual Density (MGT) Figure 3. Example Incremental Cost Variation by Density based on a 1956 study (8) and since adjusted; and the Weighted System Average Cost (WSAC) method, developed by ZETA-TECH Associates for the Association of American Railroads. Both methods rely on a small number of equations, which reflect some key assumptions inferred from his- torical data: • SFGT assumes that the combination of fixed costs and those that vary with traffic can be rep- resented as being proportional to the square root of density. This assumption has been criticized as having inadequate data to support it beyond 25 MGT, and has been revised. The assumption of indefinitely improving economies of scale remains inherent to the method, however. • WSAC assumes that the variable portion of MOW costs are entirely variable and are linear with tonnage over 25 MGT. Below 25 MGT, fixed costs assume an increasing importance, accounting for all costs at 1 MGT. The development of WSAC was supported by the "TOPS report" (9), which like CFS, used multiple complex expressions to estimate the maintenance cycles and lives of various components. By independently constructing relationships for a large number of component activities, and using a more complex formulation, the CFS avoids making assumptions on the scale of SFGT or even WSAC. The particulars of cost variability for each CER are distinct. It is therefore of interest to examine how the CER results compare to these formulas. A thorough comparison would require that all three methods be employed for the same railroad carrying the same traffic. This was not possible as part of the preparation of this paper, but three observations can be made: • The level of incremental co.sts in Figure 3 lies between systemwide costs advanced by Amtrak and Conrail in their 1995 rate case before the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) (10). The costs advanced by Amtrak using SFGT appear to be 10 to 25 percent less than the level sug- gested by Figure 3, while the costs advanced by Conrail appear to be larger by a factor of 3 to 4. A spread of this magnitude is not unprecedented in such essentially adversarial proceedings. Paper by D. Allen 97 • The costs for the "representative" railroad in Figure 3 are significantly lower than costs esti- mated by Resor (7) using both the SFGT and WSAC methods for a specific unidentified seg- ment of railroad, as shown in Figure 4. • Beyond 25 MGT, the behavior of the CFS incremental cost can be approximated by the den- sity to the -0.088 power, versus the inverse square root (-0.50 power) for SFGT. in the same range, WSAC incremental cost is constant with density (0.0 power). A number of factors restrict the conclusions that can be reached from these comparisons. First, the railroads in question may not be truly comparable to the "representative" railroad in Figure 3. Second, the CERs presume, for any tonnage, a railroad maintained for 60-mph freight operation; this means that a number of costs that might not be required at lower densities are nevertheless included, and therefore may act to reduce marginal costs. Third, the prior methods include ballast renewal, for w hich the CFS model does not vary the life cycle with the addition of passenger traffic. Fourth, as men- tioned above, the CFS methods .separate out the effects of maintaining speed and ride quality for pas- senger service: the effective combined MOW compensation to freight railroads in the CFS scenarios where HSR was operated wa.s comparable to that established by the ICC for Amtrak reimburse to Conrail in the 1995 case. Fifth and finally, the CFS data synthesis did not extend below the 5 MGT level. Conclusions The results obtained for a "representative" hypothetical railroad using the CFS model suggest some directions for future development, and support a few conclusions even with the limitations cited above: • A direct side-by-side comparison of the CFS-derived and prior methods should be made for a set of identical assumptions: unless the CFS methods are extended to lower track classes, this would have to include an assumption that the track is maintained to at least FRA Class 5 regardless of density. This would confirm the apparent "middle ground" status of the CFS for- mulas relative to WSAC and SFGT, and would permit more substantive conclusions to be drawn. ■ CFS model (see Nole 1) « WSAC (see nole 2) * SFGT (see note 2) Annual Density (MGT) '1: Track ciass loed (5); olhefassMnptPons may differ front SFGT/WSAC example I 2 Trac* dass may vary etampies from Resor paper (see tool7x)le ir te»l| | Figure 4. Examples of Incremental Cost Variation by Density 98 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association • The CFS model could be developed further to extend its range and scope; its modular con- struction facilitates this. Comparison of replacement cycles for individual activities with the TOPS research underlying the WSAC, and ongoing research, could lead to improved CERs in selected areas. • Economies of scale do appear to exist with respect to traffic density, but they are far more modest than the SFGT formulation would suggest, and are very small for densities over 25 MGT. • Consideration should be given to the separation of "tonnage effects" and "speed and ride quality effects" (as in Figure 2) in new approaches to costing passenger train use of freight railroads. The model developed for the CFS offers a framework for doing this. In summary, the CERs developed for the CFS provide a systematic framework for evaluating MOW costs in the context of a complete forecast of operating and maintenance costs. The basic framework can be developed therefrom to support planning efforts, cost projections, and cost alloca- tion studies. References (1) U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, High-Speed Ground Transportation for America, August, 1996. (2) Federal Transit Administration, Estimation of Operating and Maintenance Costs for Transit Systems, DOT-T-93-21, December, 1992. (3) Pier, Jerome R., and Campbell, Gordon S., High Speed on Existing Rights of Way: The Significance of Vertical Dynamic (P2) Forces, presented at the Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, January 1 1,1993. (4) Senac, Guy, Increasing Speeds on Existing Lines, French Railway Review, Volume 2, Number 2, 1984. (5) informational brochure "Die Deutsche Bahn AG offnet den Fahrweg fur Dritte", c. 1994 (6) Allen, Duncan W., "Cross-Corridor Comparison of Operating Costs for High-Speed Ground Transportation", Transportation Research Board 1997 Annual Meeting, Paper No. 971135, January, 1997. (7) Resor, Randolph R., "Passenger Trains on Freight Railroads: Setting the Price For Access", 1996 Conference on Passenger Trains on Freight Railroads. (8) Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association, vol. 58, No. 532, 1956. (9) U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, "Procedures for Analyzing The Economic Costs of Railroad Roadway for Pricing Purposes", January, 1976. (10) Interstate Commerce Commission Decision, Finance Docket No. 32467, December 29, 1995. he Hidden :nemy . . . You can't always see the enemy lying beneath the surface -fouled ballast waiting to combine with moisture to destabilize your track. 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If you take us up on it, you will always be on the right track, ^^^^^fe==^~^ •1 1 n nil fi-fl n^ -. -.r [_: — ■ .._._,. -■ ■-■ '■ — ..., .,.-. -Y- _,_,_ 3 t:^|?P " " Sf!STaiSi"~«^ya». : "^ Li/ W-^-iDcri '•t=^ i-:.or-^- \'r-=t^ '■' " ^^^^^^ r RailquiiH inc. 3731 Nortticrest Road, Suite 6, Atlanta, GA 30340 (770) 458-4157 • Fax (770) 458-5365 100 LONGITUDINAL FORCES IN AN OPEN-DECK STEEL DECK PLATE-GIRDER BRIDGE By: Duane E. Otter*, Joseph LoPresti**, Douglas A. Foutch*** and Daniel H. Tobias**** Abstract The Association of American Railroads (A AR) recently tested a 50-foot open-deck steel deck plate-girder bridge to measure the longitudinal forces induced by high-adhesion AC locomotives. Rail anchoring conditions, both on and off the span, were varied during the test to determine their effects on the transmission of longitudinal forces into the bridge. Preliminary results show that cur- rent American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) design recommendations for steel bridges underestimate these forces. Interestingly, the AREA design guidelines used for timber bridges appear to provide a much closer approximation. This test is the first in an AAR study of longitudinal forces in bridges under new-technology train equipment such as AC locomotives. While the results of this complete study will be used to develop new design recommendations, it is too early to make any recommendations based on this sin- gle test. Variations in span length and other bridge features may lead to different results. Background With new AC locomotives being capable of roughly twice the adhesion of older series conven- tional DC locomotives, there is some concern that the current longitudinal force design recommen- dations should be updated. The Association of American Railroads (AAR) recently tested a 50-foot open-deck steel deck plate-girder bridge to measure the longitudinal forces induced by high-adhesion AC locomotives. Rail anchoring conditions both on and off the span were varied during the test to determine their effects on the transmission of longitudinal forces into the bridge. Preliminary results show that cur- rent American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) design recommendations for steel bridges underestimate these forces. Interestingly, the AREA design guidelines used for timber bridges appear to provide a much closer approximation. This test is the first in an AAR study of longitudinal forces in bridges under new-technology train equipment such as AC locomotives. While the results of this complete study will be used to develop new design recommendations, it is too early to make any recommendations based on this sin- gle test. Variations in span length and other bridge features may lead to different results. Revenue service tests were conducted at Trinidad, Colorado, on the Burlington Northern Santa Fe. The test bridge is located on a 1 -percent grade on a line which carries several unit coal trains daily, most of them powered by AC locomotives. The bridge is a single span, built in 1908 for a Cooper E-55 design loading. Rail is continuously welded 132 RE on the bridge and its approaches. The bridge deck has timber ties on 1-foot centers. Every other tie is fastened to the top fiange of the girders using an anchor bolt and spring clip. The top flange of the girder has a riveted cover plate along its full length. The rivet heads are imbedded into the deck ties. The west approach has seven timber ties adjacent to the bridge, then concrete ties on 2-foot centers with Safelok fasteners. The east approach has about 55 feet of timber ties, then a turnout which is heavily anchored with Pandrol clips. ♦Principal. AAR-TTC ♦Senior Engineer, AAR-TTC ♦University of Illinois ♦University of Illinois 101 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association The bridge girders and bracing, rails, and approach trackage were instrumented to measure strains, forces, and displacements. Key measurements were longitudinal rail forces in both rails at each end of the bridge. The applied tractive effort (whether in traction or dynamic braking) for the AC locomotives was obtained from the cab display. Net force into the bridge was calculated by sub- tracting the net longitudinal rail force at the ends of the bridge from the tractive effort applied by the loconn)tive axles on the bridge. During the course of testing, rail anchoring conditions were varied both on and off the bridge to study their effects on bridge longitudinal forces. Four different combinations of anchoring were used: • Rail on approaches anchored tightly, rail on bridge minimally anchored • Rail on approaches minimally anchored, rail on bridge minimally anchored • Rail on approaches minimally anchored, rail on bridge anchored tightly • Rail on approaches anchored tightly, rail on bridge anchored tightly For the approaches, minimal anchoring consisted of timber ties without box anchors, and Safelok clips removed from every other concrete tie for 200 feet on the west approach. Tightly anchored approaches consisted of box anchors on all timber ties, and Safelok clips on all concrete ties. For the bridge, minimal anchoring was supplied by the rail clips and anchor bolts in their as-is condition. Tight bridge anchoring consisted of box anchors on each anchored deck tie, as well as tightened rail clips and anchor bolts. AAR researchers measured forces under revenue service trains in both tractive effort and dynamic braking. The highest forces into the bridge were measured in the tractive effort cases as the locomotives crossed the bridge. The AC locomotives used in the test (Electro-Motive Division model SD70MAC) have a maximum tractive effort per locomotive unit in excess of 150,000 pounds, while maximum dynamic brake effort is limited to about 80,000 pounds. All data presented here is for loaded unit coal trains of approximately 1 15 cars powered by a three-unit set of six-axle AC locomotives. The highest applied force occurs when a total of six powered axles are on the span, as shown in Figure I. Figure 1. AC Locomotives Crossing Test Bridge Paper by D. E. Otter, J. LoPresti, D. A. Foutch and D. H. Tobias 103 Preliminary Test Results Figure 2 shows results from train passes when the approaches were tightly anchored. This is the most common practice for bridges in continuous welded rail territory. As expected, the force into the bridge increases as the tractive effort applied to the rail on the bridge increases. The forces into the bridge for a given applied tractive effort appear to be slightly higher, when the rail on the bridge is tightly anchored, than when the rail on the bridge is minimally anchored. The amount of applied trac- tive effort varied depending on whether the locomotives were in traction or dynamic braking. Applied tractive effort also varied from one train pass to another due to differences in train handling, train speed, and locomotive performance. Figure 3 shows the results from the train passes when the rail on the bridge was anchored tightly. The highest forces measured during any of the tests were for this condition and minimal approach anchoring. A force into the bridge of nearly 100 kips was measured for an applied tractive effort of about 135 kips. The forces into the bridge are noticeably reduced when the rails on the approaches are tightly anchored. This allows more of the applied tractive effort to be carried off the bridge through the rails. Figure 4 shows the results from the train passes when the rail on the bridge was minimally anchored. In this case, the effect of anchoring the rails on the approaches is barely discemable. Anchoring the rails on the approaches may offer a slight reduction in force reacted by the bridge. 100 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Applied Tractive Effort (Kips) o Bridge Anchored Tightly x Minimal Bridge Anchoring Figure 2. Force into Bridge with Approaches Anchored Tightly 104 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 100 (A 80 60 T3 %— CO O 4^ 40 c 8 o 20 X X 1 o8 a> o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Applied Tractive Effort (Kips) X Minimal Approach Anchoring o Approaches Anchored Tightly Figure 3. Force into Bridge with Bridge Anchored Tightly 100 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Applied Tractive Effort (Kips) Figure 4. Force into Bridge with Minimal Bridge Anchoring Paper by D. E. Otter, J. LoPresti. D. A. Foutch and D. H. Tobias 105 Implications The measured longitudinal forces into the bridge are considerably higher than the design val- ues currently recommended by AREA for steel bridges. The current AREA design loading is less than 4 kips for a 50-foot steel span, compared to measured forces of nearly 100 kips. However, it should be noted that this test, on a relatively short steel bridge, arguably represents a worst case in two respects: ( 1 ) the bridge is just long enough to accommodate six powered axles, as shown in Figure 1 , and (2) the shorter the bridge, the lower the design longitudinal load as per the current AREA for- mula for steel bridges. For longer bridges, the concentration of applied longitudinal force will be lower and the design load higher. The maximum measured longitudinal force into the bridge is roughly 25 percent of the loco- motive weight applied to the bridge. This agrees well with the current AREA guidelines used for tim- ber bridges, which recommend designing for 25 percent of the weight on locomotive drivers. Fortunately, many of the steel bridges designed before 1968 were designed to similar guidelines. The test results also show that, as applied tractive effort increases, so does the longitudinal force that must be reacted by the bridge. Although the tests were conducted with AC locomotives, it should be noted that even for tractive effort levels typical of DC locomotives, the longitudinal force into the bridge is higher than the AREA design value. The AAR, in conjunction with researchers at the University of Illinois, will use the measure- ments from these tests to calibrate an analytical model to extend the results of this test to other bridges. Further testing is recommended to determine the longitudinal forces in spans of different lengths, as they could vary significantly. 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Fairmam tamper |Q) a harsco companq Your partner along the way IMPROVING INFRASTRUCTURE RELIABILITY THROUGH ENGINEERING FACILITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM STANDARDIZATION Sponsored by: AREA Committee 32 — Engineering Management Systems Subcommittee 2 — Engineering iVIanagement Systems By: Dale E. Bartholomew, PE* Ladies and Gentlemen, I wish to thank the AREA Board and the Program Committee for pro- viding this opportunity to AREA Committee 32, Engineering Management Systems, to present this paper titled "improving Infrastructure Reliability Through Engineering Facility Management System Standardization." I know that title is a real mouthful, but I hope that this presentation can help make it clear what Railway Engineering Facility Management Systems are and how they provide an oppor- tunity for significant improvement in the effective construction and maintenance of all of our infra- structure. I also thank each of you for demonstrating your interest by your presence here this afternoon. My name is Dale Bartholomew. This presentation is sponsored by AREA Committee 32 and its Subcommittee 2, also titled Engineering Management Systems. In addition to Subcommittee 2, Committee 32 has an Education Subcommittee and a Subcommittee dealing strictly with Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) Systems, including the interchange of data between these sys- tems. Both of these Subcommittees had major involvement in this presentation. The Education Subcommittee has sponsored the entire afternoons session and much of the work of the CADD Sub- committee is summarized in one of the modules of this presentation. Presentation Outline This Presentation will begin with an Introduction wherein I will touch on how a comprehensive Railway Engineering Facility Management System (REFMS) can improve your railroads infrastruc- ture reliability. An even greater goal of this presentation, however, will be to show how Standardiza- tion of REFM Systems will facilitate development of enhanced systems yielding an even greater improvement in infrastructure reliability than is attainable with current systems. This is because stan- dardization will allow faster and more economical development of REFM Systems: should eliminate duplication of effort; and will provide systems with greater capability, more compatibility and with easier maintenance of the systems themselves and the data that they need to function. Next I wish to describe the historical and continuing development of REFM Systems on most major freight railroads and transit systems. I will briefly outline early systems and touch on current practice. Of course a major intent of this presentation is to outline the work of Committee 32 and its efforts to define standards for REFM Systems. The development and publication of the AREA Manual Chapter 32 Table of Contents in 1994 was a key first .step. Much of this presentation, however, will center on the standard REFM System Functional Sections or Modules and the standard REFM System Process and Information Flow that, in reality, are nicely outlined in the Chapter 32 Table of Contents. Following the recommendation for all memorable talks, 1 will conclude by "telling you what I Just told you." I will summarize how REFM Systems improve infrastructure reliability and reiterate how standardization of REFM Systems will provide improved systems and thus, in turn, even greater ♦Sverdrup Civil. Inc. 107 I OS Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association infrastructure reliability. A key conclusion that I hope all of you will come to, however, is that there will be significant advantage to you or your railroad to encourage participation and railroad support of the AREA Manual chapter development work of AREA Committee 32. This of course should lead to the conclusion that you and a number of your people should become active members of Committee 32. Introduction Railroading has undergone significant change in all methods of operation in the last couple of decades. Much of this change has caused all companies, and individuals within them, to reexamine their business objectives on a long term basis while also considering short term benefits. Particular emphasis has been placed on how to achieve these objectives in the most economical way possible. Automation systems and the thrust for a paperless office environment have played a key role in this change. Railway Facility Management has not been exempt from this trend. All major railroads and many transit agencies now use Railway Engineering Facility Management Systems (REFMS) in one form or another to a significant degree. My discussion on how these systems can improve your rail- roads infrastructure reliability will be brief, since there have been numerous demonstrations of this through presentations at previous AREA Conferences and articles in railway industry publications. For example, note the article "Developments in Maintenance Planning" in the February, 1997 issue of Railway Track and Structures. REFM Systems, thus, are well known to improve infrastructure reliability by facilitating more accurate monitoring of facility conditions; and by providing enhanced forecasting, budgeting, sched- uling and management of maintenance and capital improvement work. REFM Systems are also known to improve infrastructure reliability by providing enhanced management, and productivity and/or quality assessments of: personnel, maintenance or production gangs, work equipment, material, projects, the engineering design process and maintenance or con- struction documents such as plans or specifications. Finally, reliability is improved by minimizing manual information acquisition or data entry. Further details of how REFM Systems improve infra- structure reliability in the aforementioned ways will also be made apparent as the discussion of each basic segment or module of a REFM System is presented. The need and benefits of Standardizing REFM Systems has become increasingly apparent to AREA Committee 32 as automation systems; computer hardware and software, and communication technology; undergo phenomenal change each year. The power of computers continues to increase significantly while the price and size are dramatically reduced making it now possible to economi- cally place powerful computers or data terminals on virtually every desk or even in the pocket of field personnel. These changes have accentuated the potential for REFM Systems and have caused more and more railroads to look into their development. The Committee's studies have shown, however, that the majority of REFM Systems developed to date have been developed as independent endeavors. Each railroad, or possibly even department within a railroad or section within an Engineering Department, has taken a significantly different approach; utilized different procedures and file structures; used independent data storage; and con- tracted with new and/or different system developers. This approach has resulted in excessive devel- opment time, high cost and extensive duplication of effort. These "independent endeavor" impedi- ments have frequently led to development of systems with limited capability as each railroad's budget restraints lead them to direct their major efforts toward a narrow range of Engineering Facility Management functions rather than develop comprehensive REFM Systems. The Committee has discovered that all railroads perform most functions listed in the Chapter 32 Table of Contents, but use uniquely differing levels of either manual or automated techniques to process and store the information. These further differences often result in internal functional incom- patibilities between system modules or segments, and the inability to share data. Recent mergers have demonstrated that these systems also have major external incompatibilities with the systems of other Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 109 railroads as well as with outside vendors or governmental agencies. Frequently manual data reentry has been required and maintenance of these systems is difficult leading to early system obsolescence. A review of presentations at previous AREA Conferences and articles in railway industry publica- tions, including the most recent articles, confirms that the trend of "independent endeavor" develop- ment is still the norm. The maintenance of REFM Systems and their associated data files has been found to be one of the most critical problems. Just like the facilities that REFM Systems are intended to help us main- tain, REFM Systems and their data files are subject to the Murphy's Law corollary that.... "Anything that's been put together will fall apart sooner or later." But, with computer based REFTVI Systems the problem is vastly compounded by the extreme rapidity with which new software releases, and higher capacity and faster hardware become available. Many railroad managers have erroneously assumed that, once the expense of developing a sys- tem and converting information (text records, inventory data, drawings, etc.) to electronic form is undergone, their data storage, location, retrieval and analysis burdens will be gone forever. Nothing is further from the truth. Unfortunately, Committee 32 has found that few railroads have an adequate ongoing REFM System maintenance budget. Many systems that we reviewed in the 1970's, or even later, have lapsed into disuse, in spite of being masterfully conceived and having excellent functionality. Redevelopment from scratch has sometimes occurred (independent effort) or is being contemplated. The problems: • Most new software releases (computer programs) will only read information (data) files cre- ated by and saved in the format of the most recent 3 or 4 releases of software, and then only the most popular versions. • Most new software releases will only work on the latest 2 or 3 generations of hardware (com- puters). • Repair parts and service are readily available for only the latest 3 or 4 generations of com- puter hardware. • New software releases are issued approximately every year. • New generations of computer hardware are produced approximately every other year. The net result is that, if you have not annually updated or translated your information files into the format of recent software releases, you will have significantly reduced efficiency, and possibly considerable difficulty, accessing the information after just three or four years. If you have not updated the computer hardware or software for ten or more years, there will likely be serious com- patibility problems with other systems and system updates or information file translations may be very difficult. Furthermore, if you can not get parts to repair a hardware malfunction, you may not be able to access your information files at all. The system development and information file creation work may be totally lost. Most railroads have come to realize that critical documents, such as bridge drawings, can not be efficiently stored as permanent electronic files without annual updates. It is the intent of the Committee in preparing Chapter 32 to encourage reversal of the "inde- pendent endeavor" development trend by providing recommended standards for the design and development of REFM Systems. We have come to believe that these standards will facilitate the design and development of enhanced REFM Systems in a faster and more economical manner and can eliminate duplication of effort. Standardized systems will also have greater capability and more compatibility than current systems; and the systems themselves or the data that allows them to func- tion will be easier to maintain. These benefits are realized since individual railroads will not have to expend the considerable time and expense required in the past to define system concepts. That is, they will not have to deter- 1 10 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association mine the what, why, how, when and other basic objectives of their proposed REFM Systems. The Manual Chapter 32 standards will provide predefined functionality, methodology, appraisal proce- dures, data structures, data formats, data entry procedures, terminology, information codes, inter- change standards and many other recommended system parameters. Increased utilization of stan- dardized systems will encourage software and hardware developers to "build-in" greater compatibility and possibly automated updates or translations to new software releases and genera- tional hardware improvements. Development of REFMS Over the last couple of decades, AREA Committee 32 has investigated the REFM Systems on most major railroads. This effort has lead us to define the following standard functional components or modules of a comprehensive REFM System. Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module (PAFM) Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module (CEBM) Project Scheduling Module (PSM) Gang Management Module (GMM) Work Equipment Management Module (WEMM) Material Management Module (MMM) Project Management Module (PMM) Fixed Facility Inventory Module (FFIM) Engineering Design and Administration Module (EDAM) • Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) • Document Management (DM) • High-Wide-Heavy Load Authorization Module (HWHLAM) The above modules of a REFM System are listed in the sequence of primary information or process flow and closely parallel the Part Title sequence of the twelve parts of the AREA Manual Chapter 32 Table of Contents. Both begin with Project Appraisal and Forecasting since that is the ori- gin of any proposed maintenance or capital project; or, in other words, the beginning of the project planning function. The project process and information flow then progresses down through the list to project com- pletion within the Project Management Module, followed by the updating of the Fixed Facility Inventory records. These records, which also include field inspection records, provide the informa- tion necessary to accomplish new project appraisals and the repetition of the process. Figure 1.3, or the stylized representation in Figure 1.4, provide a more pictorial representation of this circular process since they show the primary information or process flow with shaded arrows advancing in a clockwise direction. A reverse flow; to accommodate project change orders, emergencies or other project revisions; will also occur, as depicted in Figure 1.3 with counterclockwise unshaded arrows. The Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module (PAFM), upper left in Figure 1 .4, is key to the Railway Engineering Facility Management process. This module automates the facility condition appraisal and facility degradation analysis processes, and advises Engineering Management of the need for a capital improvement or maintenance project. Then, considering manual Engineering Management overrides, forecasts of the appropriate time to perform projects is presented. The Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module (CEBM) automates project cost estimating and budgeting. Combining cost information with the project forecasts, annual budgets and future program budgets are developed including consideration of budget limits. This module also forms a flow loop with railroad management's budget reviews and the granting of authorities to progress projects. Again manual overrides are allowed, to trim budgets by reducing project scale, moving projects to a future year, etc. The Project Scheduling Module (PSM) automates project scheduling considering the avail- ability of design drawings, track time, gangs, material and equipment. The need and time-frame Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 1 1 1 required to publish time-table revision may be considered. The combining of projects that are in close proximity and seasonal restrictions are other considerations. The Gang Management Module (GMM) automates the management of crews performing project work including work location assignments and scheduling, progress reporting, personnel schedules, payroll reporting, cost reporting, productivity analysis, etc. The Work Equipment Management Module (WEMM) automates the management of equip- ment used to perform project work including work location assignments and scheduling, production reporting and analysis, cost reporting, equipment maintenance, equipment and parts inventories, etc. The Material Management Module (MMM) automates the management of material used in a project including requisitioning, long lead time or out-of-stock orders, stock inventories, shipping, etc. Sometimes this module is part of or totally incorporated into a system of the Purchasing and Materials Department. The Project Management Module (PMM) automates the management of project field work. Frequently it is a fairly conventional readily available construction Project Management system, but needs tailoring to the specific field work needs of a railroad project. Fixed Facility Inventory Module (FFIM). A major information management and storage module that automates the maintenance of all records of facility type, location, condition, rating, clearances, digital photos/videos, etc.; including historical and current inspection records, project completion records, etc. Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD). An important submodule of the Engineering Design and Administration Module that automates the production of engineering designs and draw- ings. Frequently this submodule overlaps with the Fixed Facility Inventory Module as considerable inventory information can be stored within electronic drawing or mapping files; or maps and other drawings can be automatically generated from data in facility information files. Document Management (DM). A submodule of the Engineering Design and Administration Module that automates the management of engineering documents, including electronic text and drawing storage and distribution, and maintenance of document inventories. The Engineering Design and Administration Module (EDAM) automates engineering design and the administration of an Engineering Department, including personnel scheduling, design quality and productivity analysis, design drawing availability, etc. The High-Wide-Heavy Load Authorization Module (HWHLAM) automates the authoriza- tion of high, wide or heavy load passage over various segments of a railroads lines. Usually a sepa- rate function relative to the project management loop, but can provide recommendations for facility clearance improvements or reinforcements. Utilizes information maintained by the FFIM to a major extent. Sometimes this module is part of or totally incorporated into a system of the railroads Transportation Department. Since all railroads use differing terminology, the above described AREA Committee 32 stan- dard REFM System functional component or module names and the related process and information flow will form a base of reference for all further REFM System discussions in this presentation. Early Systems Beginning in the 1970's, AREA Committee 32 began noticing increased interest in the devel- opment of segments of a REFM System by many railroads. Frequently this was the vision of one or two individuals who worked in a small functional area pretty much alone and on their own initiative. To give a few examples, in the early 1970's, the former Southern Railway had a nifty HighAVide Load Clearance Approval System on a stand-alone minicomputer This system maintained its own clearance data base that was manually digitized from light-trace photographic images produced by their new clearance measuring high-rail truck. It was a good start toward a HighAVide/Heavy Load Authorization Module in spite of no linkages to other systems. Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association By the mid I970's, CONRAILand Southern Pacific had independent Bridge Inventory Systems that had no links or common data storage with track or other facility records. Everything about these two systems was different but they did form the beginnings of Fixed Facility Inventory Modules. Canadian Pacific Railway took a plunge into rail and track management systems with development of the following: • Rail Failure System (RFS) — Maintained a historical record of rail failures and replacements allowing analysis of supplier quality. — A small part of a Fixed Facility Inventory Module. • Road Maintenance Management System (RMMS) — Maintained a track inventory and made some track condition related project recommendations. — A little more of a Fixed Facility Inventory Module and a start on a Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module. • Estimated Cost System (ECS) — Estimated Labor, Material and Contract Costs for track maintenance projects with little management of the budgeting process. — A start toward a Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module. • Work Equipment Inventory (WEI) — Work equipment data only such as serial numbers, location, condition, age, etc. — A small part of a Work Equipment Management Module. By 1980, Canadian National was serious about the development of REFM Systems. They had over 100 computer programmers working on separate track and structures management systems. During Committee 32's visit to Montreal, we were given a presentation on how their Bridge & Structures Systems was being organized. See Figure I.I. For the first time, several REFM System functional components were being linked into a comprehensive system that included the following: • Work Information System (W.I.S.) — Overall process control. Prioritizes and schedules work tasks, including issuing Work Orders. Minimal cost estimating or budgeting consideration. — A good start on some functions of the bridge or structures part of both the Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module and the Project Scheduling Module. • Labor Reporting System (L.R.S.) — Mostly Engineering Department input to an Accounting Department System. Reports project labor costs and other accounting information. Also used to report labor at Work Equipment Maintenance Shops. Does include personnel availability reporting. — A good start on the bridge or structures labor reporting part of a Gang Management Module. • Material Reporting System (M.R.S.) — Mostly Engineering Department input to a Material Department System. Reports project material costs and other accounting information. Also used to manage material inventories, catalogs, forecasts, requisitions, usage, etc. — A good start on the bridge or structures material management and reporting part of a Material Management Module. • Workload Analysis System (W.A.S.)— Primarily supports the scheduling function for pro- jects and to a lesser extent provides information to the project forecasting function. — A some- what "in-between" component that performs additional functions of the bridge or structures part of both the Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module and the Project Scheduling Module. • Plant Inventory System (P.IN.S.) — Maintains structure inventory records of bridges, timber trestles, culverts, buildings, miscellaneous structures, etc. — A good start on the bridge or structures part of a Fixed Facility Inventory Module. In addition, at the 1980 Committee 32 meeting in Montreal, we were shown a process and infor- mation flow diagram for the first time. This CN called their "Bridge and Structures System Work Environment." See Figure 1.2. This diagram showed the continuous cyclical nature of the facility management process and prompted the functional arrangement of modules and the use of shaded process or information fiow arrows in our REFM System diagrams. Figures 1 .3 or 1 .4. Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 113 ; L.R.S. V LABOUR REP. SYS. / P.IN.S. PLANT INV. SYS. BRIDGES TIMBER TRESTLES CULVERTS BUILDINGS MISC. STRUCT. ,' M.R.S. MAT REP. SYS. Figure 1.1 Bridges & Structures Systems Though of a slightly different arrangement than Committee 32 's diagram, CN's shows how inspection information leads to condition priorities which then are both stored as part of the facility inventory record. This information is analyzed and a project priority (computer ranking) is estab- lished. The importance of engineering or railroad management overrides is also illustrated which then results in development of project descriptions (work item lists and work details). This in turn leads to project scheduling, material requisitioning and the issuance of work orders. The project work is exe- cuted and completion reports are prepared which include labor reportmg. Finally the facility inven- tories are updated and with new inspections, the process continues around the circle. Unfortunately, once CN's massive REFM Systems development efforts were complete, the budgets were drastically cut. System maintenance was nonexistent and, I am told, the 1980 Bridge & Structures and Track [Management] Systems are now essentially non-functional. The Committee's latest visit to Montreal has revealed that CN has moved on to redevelopment of "newer and better" components of a REFM System. 14 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association ® =WORK ANALYSIS Figure 1.2 The B & S Work Environment In the late 1980's railroad management began to recognize the benefits of REFM Systems and a major reversal of developmental impetus occurred. Instead of Engineering Department underlings pleading for a REFM System development budget, top railroad management began insisting that REnvi Systems be developed. This caused a significant increase in the REFM System development effort of railroads, but also took a lot of the control out of the hands of engineers who's ranks had been reduced. More and more development effort was now expended by Information Management Departments or Consultants, increasing "independent endeavors." Buriington Northern Railroad underwent this process and obtained a track management system and a bridge drawing system with development of the following: • Roadway Information System (RIS) — Maintained track inventory records. — Part of a Fixed Facility Inventory Module. • Track Management System (TMS) — Predicts track maintenance requirements. — Part of a Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module. • Estimating System (ES) — Track maintenance costs and budgets. Also manages schedules and material requisitioning. — Parts of a Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module, a Project Scheduling Module, and a Material Management Module. • Service Maintenance Planner (SMP) — Schedules work to minimize traffic interference, including combining work in the same territory. — An additional part of a Project Scheduling Module. Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 15 Figure 1.3 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association < ^ z >- t^ w w UJ I- s UJ Z il Z UJ UJ /n S Ql y UJ -- go = 1 _ -D to O 2 o) Q. C Q. '^ < (0 ? s "5* o Q. "(0 3 o -a -I o (D O I (Q (1> N •^ O ^ 3 O) < T3 0 ^^H ^^H PI w 3 C c 3 O c ^^ o _0) s _0) (7) o ^ (/) 0) Q c ■D 0) (0 o o 41^ O Q u. 4-» c C XI •n (D o> re O < c o > c ■4-» •*•» E 1- re X c 'F C 0) E 3 U O n 3 3 c iZ 0) c "5) c E < re c re S a E o o 2 Q ■ HI Figure 1.4 Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 1 1 7 • Project Management System (PMS) — Track maintenance project planning and tracking, including equipment and personnel management. — Parts of a Project Management Module, a Gang Management Module, and a Work Equipment Management Module. • Bridge Drawing System (BDS) — Electronic Bridge Drawing storage, retrieval and trans- mission system. — A part of the Document Management function. Unfortunately, BNRR's Bridge Drawing System used only scanned or translated raster (dot) images for drawing storage and transmission. This means that CAD editing of drawings was not pos- sible. The system was consultant developed using a unique combination of hardware and tailored software that was difficult to maintain and the system rapidly became obsolete. I am told, that the system is now essentially non-functional. Current Practice A 1992 Committee 32 revisit to CP Rail revealed a significantly enhanced rail and track main- tenance forecasting system called TMAS for Track Maintenance Advisory System. This portion of a Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module contained the most comprehensive evaluation and future maintenance prediction algorithms seen to date. Using a "real-time" Track Evaluation Car data acqui- sition and recordings system, the facility inventory (or Library System) records are instantly updated. A Track Profile Analysis is performed and current and projected Rail Quality, Rail Wear, Track Quality and Surface Quality Indexes are computed. These are then used to very accurately forecast Programmed Track Maintenance. Also in 1992, Chicago Transit Authority's Information Management System (IMS) was reviewed. It primarily Maintains Fixed Facility Inventory type records on elevated track structures, including location, condition and rating data. The system also, however performs work projections and budgeting, or Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module and Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module, functions. A recent Committee 32 visit to CSX Headquarters in Jacksonville, Florida revealed their use of an impressive Windows based graphical interface to the facility inventory and gang management sys- tems. This system automatically and instantly updated electronic format graphical mapping every time the facility inventory was updated. Project locations were displayed on the electronic mapping displays with project progress and gang production reporting information available with the click of a mouse. This graphical data retrieval interface was available at CSX offices around the system. Just last month the Committee made its first visit to the combined Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway headquarters in Fort Worth, Texas. There we were shown one of BNSF's latest efforts, a Corporate Planning and Estimating system that had functionality and process flow closely parallel- ing major portions of the Committee's standard REFM System. See Figure 1.5. Facility inspection records from BNSF's Inspection System, an equivalent to the Fixed Facility Inventory Module, provides critical facility condition information to a functional equivalent of the Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module that BNSF calls RCP for Roadway Coordinated Planning. The process then flows to their CEPS or Corporate Estimating and Planning System, which has functionality equivalence to the Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module. Similar to the standard REFM System, CEPS has a side information flow loop to railroad or corporate management for budget review and authority. This loop links CAPBUD or BNSF's capital budget Strategic Planning System, which provides budget overrides, and a Lotus Notes system which allows Electronic Approval of Requests For Authority. Process flow then links a Project Scheduling (MSH) component which performs functions equivalent to a Project Scheduling Module such as arranging Work Windows. Process flow also supplies information needed to Purchase Material to a P & M system in the Purchasing and Material Department. This closely parallels the functionality of the Material Management Module. Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Figure 1.5 Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 1 19 Like Committee 32's standard REFM System, BNSF shows that accounting information is sup- plied to automated systems in the Accounting Department. BNSF represents these systems as the Suspense Account (SA) and Capital Projects (CP) components of their Accounting Department's Millennium Systems. Committee 32 only shows the information flow to an Accounting Department, upper right-hand comer of Figure 1.3, rather than illustrate accounting systems as BNSF does, since they are external to an Engineering Department and are not a part of an Engineering Management System. The fact that BNSF calls the system Corporate Planning and Estimating and includes functional components from other departments in their process flow diagram, clearly indicates that the impetus for development is no longer from the Engineering Department. When asked by the Committee at the Fort Worth meeting, the BNSF system developers stated they have never used, or even heard of, the AREA Manual for Railway Engineering. In spite of significant parallelism with portions of the Committee's standard REFM System, "independent endeavor" development continues to be normal practice. Work of Committee 32 In the early days of Committee 32, then called Systems Engineering or "The Computer Committee," REFM Systems had not yet become a concept for Engineering Department considera- tion. The Committee busied itself with review of railroad engineering design or analysis computer programs, such as rail stress analysis or railroad bridge deck girder design or rating programs that individuals had developed, frequently on their own initiative. At that time we had an assignment to maintain a Computer Program Digest of reviewed and recommended design or analysis programs. Debate ensued as to whether Committee 32 or Committee 15 should maintain the steel truss and girder bridge rating programs now maintained by the AAR. None of this work was considered appro- priate for inclusion in the AREA Manual. As computers began to proliferate, the amount of available software also mushroomed and the task of reviewing the new software and maintaining the Computer Program Digest became formida- ble. That task was dropped and the Committee began conducting railroad Engineering Department computer utilization surveys and holding symposiums to distribute information. Along with the rapid increase in computer technology, the potential for managing Engineering Department information such as rail flaw detector car data, facility inventory records, material requisitions, and maintenance or capital project records was realized; and the concept of developing AREA Manual Chapter 32 material was proposed. Ill-conceived first efforts, however, did not meet Manual material publication standards. At the same time, interest in Committee 32 membership by non-Manual using Computer Systems types began to increase. These new members, however, were a great asset in formulating Systems concepts, such as functionality and process flow. In the I980's and early 1990's, railroads entered the perpetual reorganization mode which also caused high Committee membership turnover and further reduction in AREA-Manual-using mem- bership. Computer technology advances continued to escalate and realization of the need for REFM Systems increased and shifted from the Engineering Department to Corporate Management. Engineering Systems Sections were established in many railroad Engineering Departments or the number of Computer Systems Department personnel assigned to REFM System development was increased. The AREA Board shifted from reticence at publishing Chapter 32 Manual material to encouraging Manual material development. AREA Committee 32 began an earnest effort at developing AREA Manual matenal by defin- ing the unique functionality modules of a REFM System. The next step was development of the General Processes and Information Flow Diagram of Figure 1.3. This lead directly to development and publication of the AREA Manual Chapter 32 Table of Contents, which is essentially just a linear detailed listing of the various elements of a REFM System as depicted graphically in Figure 1.3. 120 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Soon thereafter. Subcommittee 4, Engineering Graphics Systems, assumed responsibility for Part 2 of AREA Manual Chapter 11, Cartographic Specifications, since almost all railroad mapping had begun to be maintained on Computer Aided Drafting (CAD) systems. Chapter 1 1 material was updated slightly and republished in 1996 as AREA Manual Chapter 32, Part 11, Section 1 1.3, Mapping. Currently, Committee 32 is working on developing AREA Manual Chapter 32, Part 1, Railroad Engineering Management Systems Overview. Figure 1.3 will be an important component of this material. This effort has taken longer than it should due to the increasing responsibilities of all rail- road personnel, and the Committee's declining active membership and meeting attendance. Also it is hard to coax volunteer Manual development effort out of railroad or consultant personnel who rarely, if ever, use the AREA Manual. Current Committee active membership includes only one or two mem- bers that regularly use the AREA Manual. This is why it is hoped that this presentation will encour- age many of you to join AREA Committee 32 and become active participants, so we can complete Manual Chapter 32, Part 1, and the remaining Parts 2 through 12. AREA Manual Chapter 32 Table of Contents Since AREA Manual Chapter 32 contains little more than the Table of Contents, it may seem that it does not have much value. Committee 32, however, believes that there is significant value to the Table of Contents, since, as alluded to above, it does provide a detailed listing of the various ele- ments of a standardized REFM System. This in itself could go a long way toward reducing the many functional differences that exist between REFM Systems on various railroads. It can also help assure system developers that they are not overlooking important functional elements that would provide significant added value to a railroad from the REFM Systems development effort. If Engineering Departments and, in turn, consultants or other systems developers can be made aware of the standard Table of Contents REFM Systems functional element listing, much of the "from-scratch," "independent endeavor" developmental expense and system configuration differ- ences could be avoided. These system configuration differences, previously illustrated in the Early Systems and Current Practice narrative, have been found to be the most difficult and costly roadblock to merging REFM Systems. BNSF has abandoned converting some elements of the former BN and Santa Fe systems and some of what they are converting is taking significant effort by numerous per- sonnel that has continued for over a year Standard REFMS Functional Sections or Modules Don't try to read the text of Figure 1.3 on the screen. This figure is available as a handout on the side tables and will be available in the printed version of this talk. I am showing this slide to you because I want to describe the meaning of the various rectangles that you can see on the screen. In addition to depicting the General Processes and Information Flow of a REFM System, Figure 1 .3 also illustrates the functional organization of each element or module. All of the functional elements or modules of a REFM System are contained within the largest and heaviest solid rectangle. This includes all modules listed in the simplified representation of Figure 1 .4. This large heavy solid rec- tangle can also be viewed as being the walls of a railroad Engineering Department, or encompassing the activities performed by an Engineering Department, even though the "real people" of an Engineering Department are depicted by the heavy dashed enclosure at the upper left comer of the large heavy solid rectangle. Around the outside perimeter of the large heavy solid rectangle are a number of dashed rectan- gles that represent other offices or departments that share information with the REFM System, but are external to the Engineering Department, or their systems are "external" to the REFM System (not maintained by Engineering). At the top, a dashed rectangle encircles the Executive and/or Finance departments. The smaller loop of arrows represents the "side" information flow loop that illustrates the budget or project authority request and approval process and corporate or engineering manage- ment budget or project overrides. Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 1 2 1 Continuing at the top right and progressing clockwise, other external departments or offices encircled by dashed rectangles include the Accounting Department; Personnel Department; Property Management Department; Purchasing and Material Department; Field Offices, Gang or other Field Reporting Location; Outside Offices of Contractors, Suppliers, Other Railroads, Governmental Agen- cies, or Customers; and the railroad's Transportation Department. The dashed Field Office rectangle is shown overlapping the large heavy solid rectangle, since some or portions of all field offices, or their REFM System functional interface come under the jurisdiction of the Engineering Department. Lighter weight solid rectangles encircle each REFM System functional element. Two of these rectangles are shown extending outside the large heavy solid rectangle and overlapping other dashed rectangles. This is because the Material Management Module, lower right, or the High-Wide-Heavy Load Authorization Module may functionally reside totally within the Engineering Department, par- tially within the Engineering Department, or totally within the Purchasing and Material Department or Transportation Department, respectively. The Project Management Module's encircling rectangle is shown overlapping the dashed Field Office rectangle since a lot of the Project Management Module function is performed in the field. All of the rectangle overlaps of the Engineering Design and Administration Module, it's Document Management and CADD submodules and the Fixed Facility Inventory Module, represent the functionality overlaps of their processes described earlier. The large solid drum symbol shown in the center of the diagram represents Data Files that are used or maintained by some of all of the REFM System functional modules. The functional modules (smaller solid rectangles) are arranged surrounding these files and the processes and information flow is shown encircling the Data Files, because they are key to each module being able to perform it's function. We don't show the Fixed Facility Inventory Module as the center of the process like some rail- road's diagrams, because it is really just another element that performs the Facility Inventory Data update function of the overall process loop. It also performs the Facility Condition Data update func- tion, incorporating field inspection information (bridge inspections, track geometry car information, etc.) into the Facility Inventory Data. The Facility Inventory Data is the most accessed data of the system, so is shown as a part of the Data Files at the center of the process. Compared to the stylized representation of Figure 1.4, the Gang Management Module, the Work Equipment Management Module, and the Material Management Module are more accurately shown to have parallel functionality in Figure 1 .3. The process and information flow arrows also take three separate parallel paths exiting the Project Scheduling Module. The Material Management Module is shown following the other two only because there is subsequent process and information flow between the Work Equipment Management Module and the Material Management Module that deals with equipment and parts purchases. The three parallel process and information flows converge again at the Project Management Module. Another separate process and information flow path is shown between the Engineering Design and Administration Module and the Project Scheduling Module which depicts the handling of Design and Drafting Time and Engineering Design Schedule information and their impacts on individual Project Schedules. Taking a closer look at the functionality of each module, we will again begin with the Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module (PAFM), upper left in Figure 1 .4, since it is key to the Railway Engineering Facility Management process. See Figure 2. Specific appraisal functions handled by this module irtclude: • Appraisal Function • Performing Work Productivity Analysis • Performing Work Methodology Effectiveness Analysis • Calculating and Analyzing Quality Indexes for: + Track / Rail / Ties / Surface / Bridges / Etc. • Developing Degradation Analysis Models for: -I- Track Surface / Rail / Ties / Subgrade / Bridges / Etc. • Performing Work Prioritization Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association <y Work Appraisals /- Degradation Analysis Condition Analysis Work forecasts Annual Programs ( Pro/fect Appraisal and Forecasting Module (PAFM ^- /. .Condition Indexes Figure 2 Developing and utilizing very sophisticated degradation analysis model algorithms has become a common function of this module. These analysis's have proven to provide significant economic benefits and improved infrastructure reliability by allowing accurate project forecasting and the opti- mization of maintenance programs. The availability of frequent infrastructure condition data from inspections or test vehicles such as Rail Flaw Detector Cars. Track Strength Test Cars, or Track Geometry Cars; plus the improving capabilities of the automated modeling systems, make this capa- bility a reality today. Based on the appraisals performed, specific forecasting functions handled by the Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module include: • Forecasting Function • Developing Annual Programs for: + Surfacing / Rail Renewal / Rail Grinding / Tie Renewal / Bridge Renewal • Coordinating Budget Approvals / Revisions, including: + Automated / Manual Overrides / Etc. • Developing Multi-Year Program Forecasts for: + Five / Ten Year Maintenance / Capital Improvements • Developing/Consolidating Work Program Data • Developing/Consolidating Project Data The Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module (CEBM) automates the project cost estimating and budgeting functions. By combining cost information with project forecasts, annual budgets and future program budgets are developed. See Figure 3. As previously discussed, this module also forms a flow loop with railroad management for budget reviews, authority processing, and manual overrides. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Obtaining or Maintaining Cost Data for: • Labor / Material / Equipment / Projects / Other Specialized Unit Costs Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 123 • Developing Cost Projections for: •5/10 Year Programs • Performing Annual Maintenance or Capital Budget Analysis and Processing • Budget Estimates / Cash Flow Analysis / Budget Consolidation / Budget Requests and Revisions • Developing Multi-Year Program Forecasts The Project Scheduling Module (PSM) automates project scheduling considering the availabil- ity of design drawings, track time, gangs, material and equipment. See Figure 4. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Performing Gang Workload Analysis • Availability / Productivity - Analysis / Forecasts • Performing Work Equipment Workload Analysis • Availability / Productivity - Analysis / Forecasts • Performing Material Delivery Analysis • Material Delivery Lead Time Appraisal • Advance Order Material Lists / Forecasts • Performing Seasonal Restraint Analysis • Winter Work Avoidance? • Performing Operations Conflict Analysis • Track Time Planning This analysis could include investigating the possibility of providing long-term track closures of busy mainlines such as the 30-hour closure Burlington Northern used a couple of years ago for a bridge deck replacement project. See the November, 1995 issue of Railway Track & Structures. The analysis can compare the costs of inefficiently performing intermittent work tasks, between trains during many short train-free periods, to the cost of rerouting trains for an extended period of time and allowing two bridge gangs to quickly and efficiently perform the work. The analysis can also include scheduling gang time for the bridge gangs to practice performing the work with a model, as BN did, to assure efficiency during the train-free period. The ability to coordinate the placement of deck panels and track panels, and still accommodate the reach and lift- ing capacity of the locomotive crane, was critical to success of the long-term track closure procedure. Another operations conflict minimization option includes performing a: • Project Consolidation Analysis This analysis also investigates the possibility of providing a long-term track closure of a busy mainline, but combines it with the performance of several projects for greater economic benefit and improved infrastructure reliability. The analysis again compares the costs of inefficiently performing several projects intermittently during many short train-free periods, to the cost of rerouting trains for an extended period of time and allowing railway maintenance gangs to quickly and efficiently per- form several projects. An excellent recent example of the possible result of this type analysis was the six day closure of 162 miles of mainline in Nebraska that Union Pacific utilized to perform "...six months worth of work." See the August, 1996 issue of Railway Track & Structures. The UP was able to accomplish the installation of 28,200 wood track ties, surface 156.4 miles of track, surface 6 No. 30 and 36 No. 20 or No. 14 turnouts, surface 240 grade crossings, renew 67 road crossings, replace 0.7 miles of curve rail on four curves, weld 390 in-track rail joints, install two new concrete bridges, install two new No. 30 turnouts, and renew one No. 14 turnout. Other operations conflict minimization functions include performing: • Transportation Department Coordination • Track Orders / Time Table Revisions 124 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association --\ Budgets Programs Reguests for Authority Cost Estimates Cost Forecosts ~-^>-- Approved Project Lists Project Work Descriptions Project Forecasts Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module (CEBM) At Figure 3 \ Gong, Work Eguipment ond^ Track Occupancy Material Availability Analysi^ Analysis and Reguests Project Delays Project Scheduling Module (PSM) oterial Reguirements M\)^teriol Orders DelVery Schedules Engineering Design Schedules Workv Eguipment ReguiXements and Schedules Ogng Reguirements anH Schedules V^^ Yl 7 v^ Project Schedules Project Critical Paths^ r< >4X A^ Figure 4 Scheduling Time Table Revisions may be an important part of project scheduling if you oper- ate a busy passenger mainline. Amtrak showed Committee 32 a sophisticated scheduling system that they used when performing work on their busy Northeast Corridor. When Amtrak had to take one track out of service to perform bridge maintenance work, for example, that outage would impact train schedules enough that a time table revision was required. Their scheduling system would analyze the length of the track outage, the proximity of crossovers, etc. to determine the required time table revi- Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 125 sions. The system would then consider the time required to publish the revised time table and get it into the hands of the public, when determining the work project schedule. A final Project Scheduling Module task is: • Developing Project Critical Path Scheduling The Gang Management Module (GMM) automates the management of crews performing project work. See Figure 5. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Gang Administration, Including Performing Gang: • Availability and Scheduling Analysis • Work Reporting • Productivity Reporting • Unit Cost Reporting • Consist Optimization Analysis • Personnel Administration, Including Performing Personnel: • Availability and Scheduling Analysis • Work Reporting • Productivity Reporting • Roster Maintenance, including updating + Job Assignments / Work History / Seniority / Ratings + Rules Certification / Safety Training / Etc. • Personnel Department Linkages • Accounting Department Linkages The Work Equipment Management Module (WEMM) automates the management of equip- ment used to perform project work. See Figure 6. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Work Equipment Administration, Including Performing WE: • Availability and Scheduling Analysis • Work Reporting • Productivity Reporting • Unit Cost Reporting • Equipment Consist Optimization Analysis • Maintaining a Work Equipment Inventory + Job Assignment / Work History / Reliability Ratings • Work Equipment Maintenance Administration, Including: • Maintenance Scheduling • Maintenance History • Maintenance Cost Reporting • Maintenance Shop Administration • Material / Store Department Linkage • Work Equipment Parts Management, Including Maintaining: + Equipment Parts Lists + Parts Inventory + Parts Costs + Parts Delivery Appraisal + Parts Order Forecasting + Parts Condition & Acceptability Reports + Parts Returns Reporting 126 Bulletin 760— American Railway Engineering Association V Gong Productivity Gang /lanagement odule (GMM; Personnel MoncgemerTlt Labor Reporting / Work Histories / Productivity Reporting Personnel Rotin Figure 5 The Material Management Module (MMM) automates the management of material used in a project. See Figure 7. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Maintaining Material Inventories and Catalogues • Material Cost Record Maintenance • Current Cost Data • Historical Costs • Cost Forecasts • Producing Material Requisitions • Performing Material Delivery Analysis • Performing Material Utilization Analysis • Purchasing and Material Department Linkage • Accounting Department Linkage Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 127 n\ W<t)rk Equipment Productivity Work Equipment Availability Work Equipment Management Module (WEMM / Work Equipment Inventory, Maintenance Scheduling, Parts Projections, Utilization Reporting, Productivity Reporting, Failure Reporting, Ratings WorK Equipment Requsitions Parts Requisitions ^ Figure 6 The Project Management Module (PMM) automates the management of project field work. See Figure 8. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Managing Schedule Adherence, Including: • Preparing Progress Reporting • Performing Critical Path Analysis • Analyzing Schedule Revisions • Performing Resource Allocation Analysis • Performing Productivity Analysis and Preparing Reports • Managing Material Utilization • Preparing Condition and Acceptance Reporting • Preparing Return Reporting • Preparing Work Equipment Utilization Reporting 128 Bulletin 760— American Railway Engineering Association Parts Availability Parts Delivery Schedules Materiel Delivery Schedules Material Availability Material Management Module (MMM) Material Costs Material Inventory Materiel Forecasts Vendor Orders Material Appraisals I Figure 7 • Preparing Project Completion Reporting, Including: • Work Documentation • As-Built Drawings • Fixed Facility Inventory Link Fixed Facility Inventory Module (FFIM). A major information management and storage module that automates the maintenance of all fixed facility records. See Figure 9. Specific functions handled by this module include maintaining current and historical records of: • Railroad Location • Line Segment • Mile Post • Track Number • Station and Offset • Field Survey Records • Satellite Geopositioning • Video Records • Line Service Data • Tonnages • Line Classifications • Ratings • Clearances • Track Quality Indexes • Track Inventory • Inspection Reporting + Visual Inspection Records * Rail / Tie / Ballast / Subgrade Conditions + Slow Orders + Geometry Car Records + Rail Detector Car Records + Track Loading Vehicle Records + Tie Condition Records • Data Elements and Codes Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 129 Gang and Personel Reports Project Schedule Revisions Work Equipmen Productivity Reports / Schedule Adherence Analysis and Reports Critical Path Analysis and Revisions Productivity Anolysis Work Orders .J- Materiel Utilizotion/Reports Material Returns/ _Z_ Project Completion Reports As Built Reports.. Chan-^e^rders Project Jvlonagement M;xiule (PMM) Field Reports Figure 8 Current Facility Conditions Historicol Facility Conditions Improvement Recommendotions Degrodation Rotes Generol Inventories Global Facility Locotions Track Inventory Bridge Inventory Misc. Facility Inventories Clearances Ratings Detoiled Bridge Inventory Misc. Detailed Inventories Video Facility Records Fixed Facility Inventory \ Module (FFIM) Figure 9 Bridge Inventory • Inspection Reporting • Visual Inspection Records • Timber Cruising Records • Fatigue Testing / Analysis Records • Nondestructive Testing Records • Data Elements and Codes 30 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association • Other Facility Inventories • Stations • Buildings • Culverts • Scales • Grade Crossings • Signals • Data Elements and Codes Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD). An important submodule of the Engineering Design and Administration Module that automates the production of engineering designs and draw- ings. Frequently this submodule overlaps with the Fixed Facility Inventory Module as described ear- lier. See Figure 10. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Interactive or Automated Production of Engineering Design Drawings • Architectural • Bridge • Civil / Surveying / Coordinate Geometry • Mechanical • Signal and Communications • Defining Mapping Standards: • General Cartographic and Digital Mapping Standards -t- Map Classes and Titles + Sheet (Plot) Sizes + Scales + Lettering and Fonts -I- Levels and Layers + Cardinal Points + Topographic Detail Right-of-Way and Track Maps Station Maps Profile Maps Track Charts (Condensed Profiles) Railroad Valuation Detail Lease / Tenant Properties and Occupancies Zoning / Land Use / Taxation / Assessments Deed and Conveyance Rights / Interests Aerial and Ortho Photography Mapping Database Utilization + Digital Linkages Document Management (DM). A submodule of the Engineering Design and Administration Module that automates the management of engineering documents, including electronic text and drawing storage and distribution, and maintenance of document inventories. See Figure 1 1 . The proposed AREA Manual material for this Section will define the following: • Interchange Standards • Hardware Requirements • Software Requirements -I- Communications Programs + Access and Security Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 131 Drawing AvoilabI Design Drawii Moppin Profiler Track Alignnnent 'l^esign StVuctural Diaqrams Co6rclinate Geonnetry Eartkjwork Quantities Computer Aided Drafftng and Design \CADD) General inventories Global Facility Locations Track Inventory Bridge Inventory Misc. Facility Inventories f\xed Facility Inventory ' xModule (FFIM) Figure 10. + Anti-Virus Programs + Backup Programs Storage and Archive Standards • Hardware Requirements • Software Requirements • Data File Formats / Organizations • Scheduling and Rotation • Compression Techniques 132 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association • Translation Standards + New Software Release Translations + System to System Translations + Raster < > Vector Translations • Data Availability and Sources • Railroad Sources + Digitization Standards + Other Railroads • Government Agency Source Standards • Manufacturer/ Vender Source Standards The Engineering Design and Administration Module (EDAM) automates engineering design and the administration of an Engineering Department, including personnel scheduling, design quality and productivity analysis, design drawing availability, etc. See Figure 12. Specific functions handled by this module include: • Structural Analysis • Bridge Design • Bridge Ratings • Building Design • Rail Stress Analysis • General Engineering Design • Trackwork Designs • Alignment (Coordinate Geometry) • Earthwork Quantities • Embankment Stability • Engineering Administration The High-Wide-Heavy Load Authorization Module (HWHLAM) automates the authoriza- tion of high, wide or heavy load passage over various segments of a railroads lines. See Figure 13. Specific functions handled by this module include providing • Fixed Facility / Load (Shipment) Clearance Assessment • Weight Rating / Load (Shipment) Assessment • Line / Route Optimization Analysis • Authorization Documentation, Including: • Restrictions • Special Instructions • Train Orders • Restriction Improvement Analysis, Including • Exception Reporting • Clearance Improvement Priority Analysis • Reinforcement Priority Analysis • Client Accommodations • Transportation Department Linkages • Fixed Facility Inventory Linkages Standard REFMS Process and Information Flow In the interest of saving time, I will not go over the Process and Information flow in detail here since it is well illustrated in Figure 1.3 which was described above. In reality, each module does not pass information or data directly on to the next module. In performing their functions, the modules having appropriate data management responsibility and authority, update the Data Files listed within the large solid drum symbol shown in the center of Figure 1 .3. These Data Files, as well as any oth- Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 133 r Document Management (DM) Digito Document Storage Document Inventory, Translation, and Display \ growing \Transmission Efectronic Mai Transm's. Engineering Design and Administration Module EDAM Trocl< Alignment Design StVucturol Diagrams Coordinate Geometry Eart'Kjwork Quantities Comp~uter Aided Draftmg and Design ''(CADD I Figure 11 ers needed, are then accessed by the next module to pass the information along. Thus, in reality, data is passed back and forth between all modules, which would be even more confusing to illustrate than the primary information flows shown in Figure 1.3. It is recommended that all data be stored in one relational "Data Bank" so that data has to be entered only once and the amount of data stored is minimized (no duplication). See Figure 14. In real- ity, it is not necessary that all data reside at the same physical location, but that it all be relationally linked. Each REFM System functional Module has data management responsibility and authority to update the following Data Files: • Project Appraisal and Forecasting Module • Quality Index Data • Project Data • Cost Estimating and Budgeting Module • Unit Costs • Cost Projections • Project Scheduling Module • Scheduling Data • Seasonal Restrictions • Gang Management Module • Gang Costs • Work Equipment Management Module • Work Equipment Inventory • Maintenance Data • Parts Data 134 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association V^ / V4 Condition Evoluo Ma teria L sts Est imot ed Work Ratings ond Restrictions j Document Management (DM) Oigitol Document Storage Document nventory, Tronslation, ond Display Drawing \Transmission Electronic Moil F/vX Transmis. esign Time ./Drofting Time Structural Anoiysis -I : \ ^ Engineering Design and Administration Module (EDAM) Track Alignment Design Structurol Diagrams Coordinole Geometry EortXiwork Quantities Compljter Aided Drafiing and Design \CADD) General Inventories \ Global Facility Locations Track Inventory Bridge Inventory Misc. Facility Inventories Figure 12 Routing Analysis High-Wide— Heavy Load Authorization Module (HWHLAM) Clearance and Rating Approisal Restrictive Facility Analysis Improvement Appraisal Facility Restrictions Improvement Recommendations Figure 13 Paper by D. E. Bartholomew 135 Figure 14 Material Management Module • Material Data • Cost Projections Project Management Module • Project Costs Fixed Facility Inventory Module • Inventory Data • Location Data • Historical Data Computer Aided Drafting and Design • Drawing Files Document Management • Digital Document Storage • Document Inventory 136 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Conclusions Based on its investigation and review work described in this presentation, AREA Committee 32 has come to the following conclusions: • Railway Engineering Facility Management Systems (REFMS) Help Engineers Improve Infrastructure Reliability • Standardization of REFMS will Provide Improved Systems • There will be Great Benefit from Your Participation in and Your Railroad's Support of the AREA Manual Chapter Development Work of AREA Committee 32 • You should Become an Active Member of AREA Committee 32 "From sea to shining sea..." 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PREMIER CONCRETE RAILROAD CROSSINGS Partnering solutions for rail industry challenges. 137 ....Changing the Law of Gravity. 138 MANAGING RAIL RESOURCES By: Joe Kalousek* and Eric Magel** Abstract All railroads, large or small, must replace broken, worn or defective rail, with rail replacement costs ranging from 200 to 350 thousand dollars per track mile. This high cost means that any exten- sion in rail life will result in appreciable savings and consequent increase the railway profitability. Rail life is governed by wear, contact fatigue damage and internal defects. Most of the wear occurs at the gauge comer in mild and sharp corners alike. A small amount of wear is cau.sed by wheels contacting the top of the rail, but on many railroads most of the vertical wear is due to grind- ing. Rail which does not wear will eventually succumb to rolling contact fatigue where microcracks at the surface propagate into larger ones until the rail is eventually infested with a network of cracks to the depth of 10 to 15 mm. Excessive wear results in a shortened wear life, while no wear leads to the development of con- tact fatigue defects. Maximizing the rail life requires wear to occur at just the right rate — the "magic wear rate." The railway engineer has several options for achieving optimal wear: usage of premium rail materials, improvements in truck design or maintenance to enhance their curving ability, lubri- cation of the gauge face/wheel flange interface and proper selection and management of the wheel and rail profiles. Introduction Improved materials and maintenance practices have dramatically extended rail and wheel life within recent years. Despite the improvements however, rails are often worn and/or damaged and replaced before their time. A significant part of the reason is that railroads have not effectively man- aged the interaction at the wheel/rail interface. Research and "real world" operating experience have shown that the most effective way to extend the life (and maintenance cycles) of rail is by treating track/vehicle interaction and the wheel/rail interface as a system. Controlling the damage that wheels and rails inflict upon each other is an essential element of .safe and cost-effective operations. An optimized .strategy is arguably the most valuable and effective means of directly controlling maintenance and capital costs — the cost of rail grinding and ultimately rail replacement. Extending the life of rail alone, which can account for 60% of a railway's total asset value, can add millions of dollars to the bottom line. Taken in conjunction with extended maintenance cycles, the savings are significant. While this is true under exi.sting operating conditions, the need to economize — to optimize — continues to accelerate as marketing forces push railroads to adopt heavier and heavier axle loads. While there is no quick or simple fix for problems at the wheel/rail interface, there are ways to manage and minimize the damage that occurs there (Figure I). Track engineers have several options for achieving long rail life: managing friction, grinding the rail to properiy selected rail profiles (con- tact mechanics), adopting premium rail materials, and collaborating with equipment engineers to institute improvements in truck design or maintenance to enhance their curving ability. Exploiting these options to effectively manage rail resources is the focus of this paper. ■ Piincipal Research OlTiccr — Ccmrc lor SurCacc Tran.sportalion Technology, Nalional Research Council of Canada * As.socialc Research Officer — Centte for Surface Tran.sportalion Technology. Nalional Research Council of Canada 139 140 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Figure 1. Tools for controlling damage modes to optimize rail and wheel life. Rail Metallurgy Life of the rail can be extended by increasing its resistance to wear, surface fatigue damage, and fatigue defects. Resistance to these damage modes increases with hardness, cleanliness, and fracture toughness. The effect of hardness on gauge face wear resistance has been well demonstrated [1]. Increased rail hardness in combination with minimized sulphide inclusions reduces the propensity to surface fatigue crack initiation and subsequent development of defects such as head checks, flaking, and shelly spots. Oxide inclusion clean rail combined with good fracture toughness reduces the like- lihood of deep seated shells formation. Both shelly spots and deep seated shells can initiate transverse defects as shown in Figure 2. Frequent occurrence of these transverse defects results in premature removal of the rail from the track and can also be a direct cause of costly derailments. Most surface fatigue cracks initiate by the mechanism of ratcheting whereby the rail surface layer is plastically strained in an incremental manner until its ductility limit is exhausted. At this point a microcrack occurs. Ratcheting and sub.sequent crack initiation is caused by a combination of high contact stres.ses, low rail hardness, friction, and the possible presence of "coarse" sulphide inclusions. The relationship between the first three parameters is shown in Figure 3. The shakedown diagram shows that the resistance to ratcheting drops off dramatically when the traction coefficient exceeds 0.3. At traction coefficients above 0.3, which frequently occur in sharp curves, the increased hard- ness combined with rail profiles which reduce contact stress can minimize the load factor (Po/ko) and substantially delay the onset of surface damage in the rail. Paper by J. Kaolousek and E. Magel 141 Figure 2: a) Transverse defect from flake; b) Transverse defect from deep seated shell. Surface + Subsurface Flow Subsurface Flow 4 \ Repealed Plastic Flow ? — ~ Y N. \ V \ \ \ N \ Elastic ^ ^ \ Shakedown ^ ^ \ ^ ■■••■... ^~ ^ \ Surface Flow — . 3 _ ■ • . . ~^ ^ \ L_ o \ ^rf o ^v (0 Elastic \. LL \. T3 ^v. (0 o 2 . \^^ -I .. ^^v> Elastic Limit Elastic-Perfectiy Plastic Shakedown Limit 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Traction Coefficient |j Figure 3. Johnson's shakedown diagram showing regions of acceptable cyclic stress as a function of maximum contact stress {P„), friction (jx), and yield in shear (k ). 142 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Oxide inclusions, especially aluminum oxide stringers, have been associated in aluminum deoxidized steels with the initiation of transverse defects from deep seated shells. However, deep seated shells have also been demonstrated to initiate at pearlite grain boundaries in clean steels [2]. Once a crack is initiated, it will propagate at a rate inversely proportional to fracture toughness. Thus, steels with high fracture toughness permit longer defect inspection intervals. While manufacturers have significantly increased the hardness and improved the cleanliness of rail steels within recent years, the hardness of pearlitic steels appears to have peaked at about 390 Brinell (BHN) [3]. Researchers have now begun looking at other structures such as bainitic steels. Although bainitic steels of the same hardness as pearlitic steels are not as wear resistant, high har- ness, low carbon bainite offers wear resistance superior to pearlite. In addition, tests carried out by McEvily and Minakawa [4] have shown that increasing the hardness from 370 BHN to 450 BHN can improve fatigue life by a factor of 2.6. Internal residual and thermal stresses also significantly affect rail failures [5]. Research continues on ways to improve rail steels, thereby reducing the number of costly and potentially dangerous transverse defects. At present, the best recommendation for heavy haul track is to install clean rail with a hardness of about 300 to 320 BHN, 340 to 360 BHN, and 380 to 390 BHN, into tangent track, mild curves, and sharp curves, respectively. Recent developments in rail welding technology are also producing high quality results in plant and field production of welds with long fatigue life [6]. Wheel/Rail Dynamics Regardless of the quality and hardness of rail and wheel steels, problems can — and do — result with inappropriate combinations of wheel and rail profiles, and poody matched truck and track designs. Under static loading conditions, each wheel carries an equal portion of the car load. Under dynamic conditions, the truck suspension distributes the load and regulates the dynamic impacts. Trucks, by virtue of their longitudinal bending and lateral sheer stiffness, govern the wheelset curving and hunting behavior [7,8]. While ideal truck designs permit the wheels to roll freely through a curve and avoid flange contact, the standard North American three-piece trucks cannot negotiate curves without the wheelsets taking an angle of attack. High quality maintenance of existing trucks significantly contributes to better rail management, because misaligned trucks are susceptible to flanging even under mild curving conditions. Ultimately, poor steering generates high lateral forces and contributes to excessive rail and wheel wear. Through the use of computer modeling systems, dynamicists are now able to design trucks and railway vehicles to optimize curving characteristics and improve overall ride quality. Self-steering truck designs, for example, allow the wheelsets to respond to steering moments and align themselves more favorably with the rail, thereby reducing the angle of attack. As a result, self-steering trucks can reduce the creepage between the wheel and rail, and minimize wear and rolling contact fatigue. Body-steered trucks are able to eliminate flange contact in curves of up to 12°. For standard three-piece, self-steering, and body-steered trucks, the division between mild and sharp curves (i.e., the degree of curvature at which the flange force reaches its maximum) is about 3°, 6°, and 12°, respectively. Hunting, which occurs above a critical speed, is influenced by many parameters, the most important being the truck design itself and the effective conicity at the wheel/rail contact. Although cross-braced trucks are less prone to hunting than worn standard three-piece trucks, most trucks — regardless of their design — will hunt in situations where effective conicity exceeds a certain limit. High effective conicity in tangent track occurs when the wheel and rail profiles are conformal, i.e., when the rails are "flat" (large crown radius) and the wheel treads are hollow. To avoid this situation the track engineer should select rail profiles for tangent track and curves to prevent the wheel tread Paper by J. Kaolousek and E. Magel 143 from hollowing; i.e., the envelope of all rail profiles a wheel contacts in different sections of track should wear the wheel "flat." Rail Profiles During curving, the contact stresses at the gauge comer are usually twice as large as those between the rail crown and wheel tread. To reduce contact stresses at the gauge corner and the gauge shoulder in curves, it is important that the wheel/rail profiles be conformal. The wheel profile is con- formal to the rail profile if the gap between the profiles is less than 0.5 mm (0.020 inches) at the cen- tre of the rail (in one point contact) or at the gauge comer (in two point contact). Figure 4 schemati- cally shows three sets of confomial wheel and rail profiles (the gaps are not shown). W and R refer to wheel and rail profiles while H refers to the high wheel/rail interface in a curve. The numbers (1, 2 and 3) matching increase in gauge comer relief. The third set could be said to be more "conical" than the second or first sets. The table at the bottom of Figure 4 .shows two .sets of conformal combinations of wheel/rail pro- files consisting of dimensioned new or worn wheel and rail profiles. In the first set (left column) the rolling radii difference (Ar) increases by approximately 0.5 mm. In the second .set, Ar increa.ses by I mm to 1.5 mm. The question is, which of these sets of profiles represents the optimal combination with respect to contact stresses, resistance to formation of contact fatigue defects, and curving? Obviously, the third set of profiles offers the highest Ar. With a higher Ar, curving is better and contact stresses are lower due to reduced creepage in the wheel/rail interface. Low contact stresses, in turn, contribute significantly to the delayed formation of contact fatigue defects. Within the constraints of a particu- lar wheel/rail system (axle load, vehicle design, distribution of curves, etc.), opting for a more coni- cal geometry results in longer rail life and better management of rail resources. On the other hand, the best way to waste valuable rail resources is to artificially introduce a non-conformal profile into a wheel/rail system which has wom conformally. About a decade ago, 136RE-14" head hardened rail was introduced into a system with wom wheels represented by the CN Heumann profile. This generated a non-conformal one point contact (the HW3-HRI combination of profiles). Although this combination is excellent for .steering, the contact stresses at the gauge comer were so high that the rail had to be removed after about 44 million tonnes of traffic due to contact fatigue defects [9]. AARStd -136RE 14" AAR1B-136RE10" CN Heumann - NRC H2 Ar» = Afg = 1 - 1 .5 mm AAR1B -136JK8" QCM-NRCH2 NRC-ASW-NRCH4 Typical Ar gains achieved with various combinations of wheel - rail profiles Figure 4. Generic sketch of three distinct sets of conformal wheel-rail profiles. 144 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association In any closed wheel/rail system (mass transit, a mining railroad, a coal line, or the FAST heavy axle loop), the wheels and rails wear conformally to each other. How conical the conformal profiles will become depends on factors such as the ratio of sharp and mild curves to tangent track, initial wheel profile, and the way the track is ground. Figure 5 shows flange root geometries of four differ- ent wheel profiles. The QCM profile represents an average worn wheel profile on 100 1 cars operated by the Quebec Cartier Mining railroad, while the NRC-ASW profile represents an average worn wheel profile on CNR and CPR 100 t coal and grain cars. Numerous grinding tests have shown that any time the gauge comer of the rail is over-relieved by grinding in a short section of the track, a non-conformal two point contact (the HW1-HR3 com- bination of profiles) is introduced. As a result, the contact area supporting the vertical load is trans- lated from the gauge shoulder towards the rail center, thereby reducing the available Ar — in some instances — to nothing. This combination may leave rust at the gauge comer of the rails, is bad for steering, and wastes the rail through accelerated gauge face wear. Figure 6 shows the set of high (H1-H4) and low (L1-L3) rail profiles which represent worn rail profiles used by the LORAM/NRC template and electronic rail grinding gauges. Grinding For a rail grinding program to best manage the rail resource, it must be sensitive to the specific wheel/rail system. It must strive to grind the appropriate profiles on each curve and tangent track in such a manner that the contact stresses with respect to the average worn wheel profile are minimized. Rail profiling must also seek to provide the greatest possible contribution to wheelset steering and, at the same time, control hunting in tangent track. It must maintain conformal wheel/rail contact in curves and non-conformal contact in tangent track. Although conformal profiles reduce contact stress in curves, the stress may still exceed the yield of the rail — including that of head hardened rail. Excessive gauge face wear or vertical wear due to frequent corrective grinding, for example, dramatically shortens the rail life. Insufficient vertical wear ensures premature rail failure due to rolling contact fatigue. The mechanism of such failures, including crack initiafion and propagation, is described in a number of publicafions. [11,12]. The minimum amount of material removed to prevent the development of contact fatigue defects is referred to as the "magic wear rate." Any time actual wear exceeds this rate, rail metal is uselessly wasted. When the actual wear is less than the magic wear, flaking, spalls, deep seated shells. f parallel to wheelset centerline NRC-ASW QCM CN HeiHTionn AAR1B Toping Line Figure 5. Flange root geometry of new AARIB and several worn wheel profiles. Paper by J. Kaolousek and E. Magel 145 a) b) -- Figure 6. LORAM/NRC set of eight 8" railhead profiles [10]. and other contact fatigue defects develop. Thus, the magic wear rate is an optimal value in which fatigue and wear are in balance. Its value changes with many variables including quality of track, traf- fic mix, and truck and wheel maintenance. In most heavy haul territories where the rail is lubricated, the vertical wear is insufficient and grinding is necessary if the rail life is to be maximized. Grinding requirements vary across the many unique rail systems in North America, not only with respect to depth of cut (governed by the magic wear rate), but also with respect to rail profiles. The LORAM/NRC set of profiles in Figure 6 is designed to allow for selection of a profile which, at any location in the track, is conformal to the wheel. In addition to the wheel profile, many other influ- encing factors (dynamic wide gauge, type of track fastening system, degree of curvature, hardness of the rail, grinding interval) affect the selection of the correct profile to which the rail is to be ground [10]. Selection of the most suitable profile cannot be over-emphasized as too much or too little relief of the gauge comer will result in increased gauge face wear or accelerated contact fatigue, respec- tively. The best way to achieve the magic wear rate and maximize the rail life is through frequent grinding in which the smallest possible amount of material is removed. This can be achieved by a preventive, one pass, rail grinding program in which no more than 0.004"-0.008" is removed from the gauge comer of the rail, and no more than 0.002"-0.006" is removed from the rail crown. For track containing clean premium rail, the grinding interval should be 10-15 MGT in sharp curves and 24-30 MGT in mild curves. Tangent track with plain carbon or intermediate grade rail would be ground at 30 MGT and 45 MGT intervals. Figure 7 shows the relationship between crack growth and preventive grinding carried out to a depth of 0.2 mm (0.008") with a grinding interval of 10 MGT. At a vertical wear limit of 20 mm (0.8"). this type of preventive grinding would yield a magic wear rate of 0.02 mm/MGT (0.0008"/MGT). The rail life with respect to wear and contact fatigue would then be estimated to reach 1000 MGT for sharp curves and 2000 MGT for mild curves. 146 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Accumulated traffic (MGT) 20 ^^ 0? b b. 0.4 2 0.6 » c 0.8 1^ u 1 0 f! «? 1.2 s in 1 4 E P 1 fi r n 1.8 0) O 2.0 crack growth without preventive grinding "magic" wear rate Figure 7. Contact fatigue crack growth in rail located in a sharp curve (>3°) as a function of accumulated traffic with and without preventive grinding with an assumed "magic" wear rate of 0.02 mm/MGT (0.0008"/MGT). Friction Management The objective of friction management is twofold: a) maintain the coefficient of friction at the flange/gauge interface at |x < 0.2 to reduce gauge face wear; and, b) to maintain the coefficient of friction at the tread/top interface at 0.2 < |x < 0.4. Lubrication of the gauge face can reduce wear by as much as 200 times over the unlubricated condition. At the top of the rail, too low friction is respon- sible for skid flats, long braking distances, runaway trains, low dispatchable adhesion, rapid propa- gation of contact fatigue cracks, and insufficient wear which promotes the development of contact fatigue. Too high friction (0.4 <\x< 0.7) meanwhile produces large flange and L/V forces in curves, contributing to tie plate cut-in, rail seat abrasion, increased gauge face wear, and low rail rollover derailments. It also causes rapid initiation of contact fatigue spalls and shells, and promotes hunting, squealing, and the growth of roll-slip induced corrugations. Managing friction at the wheel/rail con- tact patch is arguably the single most powerful tool available to railway engineers. Left to itself, the coefficient of friction at the flange/gauge contact zone typically ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 [13]. At friction levels this high, the gauge face is rough; large wear particles ("dandruff) are seen on tie plates; and wear rates, rolling resistance, and fuel consumption are high. Implementation of a meticulous lubrication policy results in reduced friction at the gauge face to 0.15 or lower and reduces wear to a fraction ('/20 to '/200) of wear typical of unlubricated conditions. It also reduces the energy needed to pull a train through curves by 10-20% in some cases. Good quality flange/gauge lubricant is strongly recommended; but maintaining continuous lubrication is most cru- cial. Absence of lubrication does more damage to the rail than continuous lubrication with any lubri- cant. Solid lubricants are showing promise since they outperform semi-solid lubricants in mass tran- sit systems and may soon do so in the heavy haul industry as well. Friction at the tread/top interface is a function of pressure distribution and creepage, but the most influential factor is the composition of the "interfacial" layer. This layer is made up of residual lubricants; wheel, rail, and brake shoe wear debris; environmental contaminants such as coal dust, grain mash, leaves, clay silica, and dust; and moisture. The composition of such a layer changes con- tinuously depending on external inputs and outputs as well as changes in its mechanical properties Paper by J. Kaolousek and E. Magel 147 and chemical composition caused by wheel loading. To visualize these changes we have developed the "bathtub" model. This model accounts for the inputs and outputs as well as crushing, mixing, and "burning" processes which take place within the layer. The burning process is due to asperity flash temperatures, which can reach 6(X)°C over the volume of several jim' (Figure 8). With respect to the frictional properties of the tread/top interfacial layer, a railway engineer can influence its composition through the brakeshoe tap, the sand tap, and the friction modifier tap. As the friction modifier tap is the only input dispensing a substance of known and controlled friction value, it must be dispensed in sufficient quantities to overcome discharges from all the other taps to stabilize friction fluctuations at the rail. Traditional oil-based lubricants are unsuitable as a friction modifier since they may generate undesirably low friction in regions requiring adhesion and braking. New generation friction modi- fiers have been developed to maintain friction levels between 0.2 and 0.35 within the wheel tread/rail top interface. One of these friction modifiers — HPF (High Positive Friction) — has been developed to decrease friction from high to intermediate levels. However, the main advantage of this modifier is that it can eliminate negative friction which excites stick-slip oscillation. As such, it can be used to eliminate squeal or alleviate growth of short pitch corrugations in mass transit systems. There is a need to develop more advanced, low cost, tread/top friction modifiers which do not have the limita- tions of traditional oil-based lubricants. Concluding Remarks Improvements in rail metallurgy, truck design (wheelset dynamics), wheel rail profiles (contact mechanics) and friction management are the main tools available to railway engineers to remedy problems of gauge face wear, contact fatigue damage, and track damage from impacts caused by hunting trucks. In most cases, a solution will require a several pronged approach — any one tool in isolation will not be as effective as several remedies combined. The most economic approach is to take advantage of synergies which exist, for example, within a combination of friction management and improved truck design, or hard clean rail and conformal (high Ar) wheel/rail profiles. Some of these synergies have been described in this paper; others are yet to be discovered. STEADY WEAR TAP ERRATIC TRAFFIC TAP ERRATIC ENVIRONMENT TAP ON/OFF BRAKESHOE TAP VpW ON/OFF RAIN & MOISTURE ON/OFF STEADY OR SAND INTERMITTEN TAP F M. TAP ^^ /|\V //T\ Z //ix^ /IT SOLID PARTICLE ATTRITION DRAIN SQUEEZE DRAIN Figure 8. The bathtub model of the wheel tread/top of the rail interfacial layer. 148 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Any synergy which applies to one railway territory will not necessarily work in the same man- ner in another territory. Rail lines in the northern part of the North American continent, for example, are subject to moisture for a substantial portion of the year. They require different solutions which take advantage of synergistic relationships that may not apply in dry southern regions. Synergies must be explored for each individual situation (a specific rail line, territory, etc.). The more we learn, understand and apply the inter-relationships which positively affect the wheel/rail interface, the more economically we can manage a railway's the most valuable track asset — the rail. References 1 . Hannafious J., "FAST/HAL rail performance," Proc. Workshop of Heavy Axle Loads, Pueblo, CO, October 14-17, A AR, 1990. 2. Sugino K., Kageyama H., Kuroki T, Urashima C, and Kikucki A., "Metallurgical investigation of transverse defects in worn rails in service," WEAR 191 (1996), pp. 141-148. 3. Steele R., "Next generation rail steels, "Advanced Rail Management Rail Maintenance Seminar, ARM, April 1996. 4. McEvily A.J. and Minakawa K., "Metallurgical evaluation of FAST rail sheets," USDOT Contract #DOT-TSC-1551, University of Connecticut, August 1981. 5. Igwemezie J.O., Kennedy S.L., Xiaodong F., and Rowan W., "Defective rail fracture under dynamic, thermal, and residual stresses, "Proceedings of the Fifth International Heavy Haul Conference held in Beijing, China, June 6-13, 1993, pp. 264-274. 6. American Welding Society, "Recommended practices for the welding of rails and related rail com- ponents for use by rail vehicles," 1994. 7. Scales B.T., "Review of freight car bogie design and performance," International Heavy Haul Association Conference on Freight Car Trucks/Bogies, June 1996, pp. 1.1-1.14. 8. Scheffel H., Tournay H.M., and Frohling R.D., "The evolution of the three-piece freight car bogie to meet changing demands in heavy haul railroads in South Africa," Intemation Heavy Haul Association Conference on Freight Car Trucks/Bogies, June 1996, pp. 1. 15-1.29. 9. Worth A.W., Homaday J.R., and Richards PR., "Prolonging rail life through rail grinding," Preceedings of the Third International Heavy Haul Railway Conference 1986, pp. 106-1 16. 10. Kalousek J. and Stroba P., "Loram rail grinding gauge manual for corrective, maintenance and preventive grinding cycles," LORAM, December 1992. 11. Grassie S.L. and Kalousek J., "Rolling contact fatigue of rails," to be published in the proceed- ings of the International Heavy Haul Conference, Capetown, South Africa, April 1997. 12. Kalousek J., "Examining rail profiles and contact mechanics," Advanced Rail Management Rail Maintenance Seminar, ARM, April 1996. 13. Kalousek J., Hou K., Magel E., and Chiddick C, "The benefits of friction management— a third body approach," Worid Congress on Railway Research, June 1996. ON THE BENEFITS OF RAIL MAINTENANCE GRINDING By: Allan M. Zarembski Ph.D., P.E.* Introduction Rail grinding is the process of removal of metal from the top surface of the rail head through the use of abrasive grinding materials. Rail grinding has been used by freight railroads and transit systems since the late I930's for the elimination of rail surface defects. Those early applications u.sed relatively unsophisticated rail grinding cars for the elimination of corrugations, engine bums, and batter at rail ends. During the next 4+ decades, grinding techniques improved, using primarily rotating grinding stones mounted on dedicated rail grinding cars or sets of cars, referred to as grinding trains. During this period, the application of rail grinding was extended to numerous types of rail surface defects to include; corrugations, joint batter, weld batter, engine bums, flaking and shelling, as well as for the grinding of mill scale from new rail [1]'. This mode of grinding for defect elimination, often referred to as "rail rectification", remained the primary use of rail grinding from the early applications in the I930's until the 1980's. [2]. During the period starting in early 1980, however, this defect elimination or rectification approach started to give way to the rail "maintenance" or "preventive" grinding approach. This latter approach does not allow surface defects to develop to any significant extent, but rather attempts to eliminate the development of these surface defects before they emerge on the rail head. It also makes extensive use of rail profile grinding techniques to control the shape of the rail head and the wheel/rail contact zones. A key driver to the development and implementation of this new approach was the development of a new generation of higher speed fully automatic rail grinding equipment that allowed for use of multiple grinding patterns and the real time variation of those pattems while grinding. This evolution from traditional grinding to maintenance grinding and the concurrent use of pro- file control has resulted in a significant broadening of the use of rail maintenance grinding techniques to increasing the service life and reduce the overall cost of rail in track. It has also led to improvements in wheel/rail dynamic interaction and the reduction of wheel/rail forces in both the vertical and hori- zontal plane (depending on specific profiles used). This reduction in dynamic interaction (and forces) results in improved rail life, noise reduction, and reduced damage to both the track stmcture and the rolling stock. Rail Grinding Applications Rail grinding, as noted above, can be divided into two broad categories, based on the specific objective and method of achieving that objective. These will be described in the following sections. Control of Surface Defects Control and/or elimination of defects on the top surface of the rail head represents the tradi- tional area of rail grinding [1,2] often referred to as rail rectification. Since these surface defects rep- resent locations where vertical wheel/rail dynamic activity is initiated, control of these surface defects results in a reduction in vertical dynamics, noise, vibration, and vertical impact forces. While this type of grinding has traditionally been one of the remedial type actions, i.e. elimination of defects after they appear on the rail head, earlier and more aggressive grinding standards have led to better control of this class of defects and the consequential reduction of their adverse impact on overall operations and costs. In some cases, the initiation of certain classes of surface defects, e.g. low rail freight corrugations, have been completely forestalled by the use of profile grinding techniques. Additional benefits have also been obtained by combining profile grinding with the use of improved rail steels (cleaner, higher strength, etc.) and/or improved lubrication practices. I 1 refer to references al end of paper * President, Zeta-Tech Associates 149 150 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Surface defects normally manifested themselves on the top surface of the rail head. These sur- face defect grinding applications include grinding of the following classes of rail surface defects (For a complete set of definitions refer to Chapter 2 of the Manual for Railway Engineering of the American Railway Engineering Association [3].): Corrugations Discrete Anomalies Engine or Wheel Bums Battered and/or Mismatched Joints Weld Irregularities Rail Head Damage Spalling or Flaking (Shelly Spots) Shelling (Gage Comer Shelling) Surface Batter/Crushed Head Plastic Flow (Lip, Flowed Rail) Rail Surface Roughness Mill Defects Mill Scale A further benefit that is obtained from the use of a regularly planned grinding activity to con- trol these surface defects is that these defects are caught and removed early in their formation cycle, while they are relatively "shallow". This results in a reduction in the dynamic loading caused by many of these surface defects, and a corresponding reduction to the damage caused not only to the rail, but also to the rest of the track structure. In current practice, grinding for the control of surface defects is frequently combined with pro- file grinding in a consolidated rail grinding activity. Profile Grindin}> Rail profile grinding refers to the method of controlling and maintaining the shape of the rail head (hence the term "profile") through the grinding of the head of the rail [2, 4]. Profile grinding goes beyond the basic defect removal approach of conventional grinding and addresses the control of the shape of the rail, and the associated interaction between the wheel and the rail, to include wheel/rail contact. This "shaping" of the rail head and the influencing of the wheel/rail interaction is a major dif- ference between traditional defect grinding and profile grinding. Traditional defect elimination tends to "flatten" the rail, as illustrated in Figure 1(a) [5]. Profile grinding, on the other hand, grinds a spe- cific contour or profile into the rail head (Figure l.b). It should be noted that contour grinding is used to restore the original shape or profile of the rail head, while profile grinding is used to give the rail head a special profile other than its original rail profile. Through the control of the rail head shape by means of profile grinding, the locations of wheel/rail contact, and thus the interaction between the wheels and the rail head, can be controlled. Elimination of surface defects, if present, is the necessary first step in profile grinding. Thus, for rail with surface defects and plastic flow, profile grinding can be a three step process, as illus- trated in Figure 2. The initial step consists of one or more grinding passes which eliminate any sur- face defects present. The second step also consists of one or more grinding passes which effectively reshape the deformed rail head. The third and final step (if necessary) grinds the final rail head pro- file. However, as maintenance grinding becomes an ongoing process with frequent grinding passes to maintain the desired rail head profile, surface defects generally do not have sufficient time to form, and profile maintenance can become a "one pass" process. Furthermore, the overall level of grinding required can be reduced through the use of a planned and ongoing grinding program to control these surface defects and maintain the profile of the rail head. Paper by A.M. Zarembski 151 Figure 1. Ground Rail Profile (a) "Flat" Profile after defect elimination grinding (b) "Contour" profile after profile grinding Rail profile grinding encompasses three broad areas of rail maintenance: 1 . Control of gage face wear and lateral wheel/rail curving forces. 2. Control of rail surface fatigue. 3. Control of corrugations. While profile grinding can address all three of these maintenance areas, they can not usually be addressed simultaneously [2,6,7]. Thus, the profile that is best suited for the control of one of these maintenance areas may not be (and in fact is usually not) the best for the other two problem areas. It is therefore necessary to define the specific problem or class of problems to be addressed prior to the selection of a grinding profile and initiation of profile grinding. In all cases, it must be noted that the ground profiles deteriorate with traffic. In one set of tests, the profiles tested lasted only 10 MOT (in non-lubricated heavy axle load freight operations) and were completely gone after 20 MOT of traffic [8]. This indicates the profiles must be continuously maintained and that rail maintenance grinding is an ongoing activity that must be continued and maintained in a regular (and defined) basis. Furthermore, this deterioration can vary with geometry and track condition. Thus, for example, the rate of profile deterioration appears to increase with cur- vature, thus requiring more frequent grinding on sharper curves than on shallower curves and tan- gents. This in turn directly affects the nature and schedule of the grinding program. Reduction in Rail Wear The use of rail profile grinding to control wheel/rail interaction, wheel/rail contact, and (thus) rail wear was developed and introduced by the mining railroads of Western Australia during the late I970's [3]. It was subsequently introduced in North America in the early 1980s, concurrent with the introduction of the first fully automated rail grinding train, RMS-1 [2, 9] The focus of this initial application of profile grinding was on the optimization of the "steering" of conventional three piece freight car trucks [4]. The results were the development of a set of asymmetric rail head profiles (i.e., asymmetric about the center line of the rail head), with a separate profile for the high and low rails of the same curve. In addition, for tangent track, where "hunting" wear was noted, special tangent profiles were develop to control this form of wheel/rail behavior, and the resulting rail head wear [2]. The initial profile grinding concept was designed to make use of the steering of the conven- tional three piece freight car truck generated by the conicity of the wheelset [6]. By making use of the difference between the wheel radii due to this conicity, which is known as the "rolling radius dif- ferential", it is possible to compensate for the difference in length, around the curve, between the high rail and the low rail (by having the outer wheel ride on the larger radius portion of its tread, and the Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Profiling Step 1: Surface irregularities are ground out Low Rail Gage Step 2: Reshape head deformation High Rail Gage Step 3: Final profiling Figure 2. Three Steps of Profile Grinding Rail Profile Grinding Concept New Profile Ground Profile <t A.B Show Shift After Grinding High Rail Low Rail Figure 3. Profile Grinding to Improve Car Steering Paper by A.M. Zarembski 153 ^ r HEAD LOSS = 25% ON REMOVAL F G WITHOUT PROFILE GRINDING HEAD LOSS - 31% IN TRACK WITH PROFILE GRINDING Figure 4. Worn Rail Sections, with and without Profile Grinding inner wheel ride on the smaller radius portion of its tread, see Figure 3 [4])-. This results in a shift- ing of the wheelset, which in conjunction with the longitudinal "creep" force generated by the rolling radius differential (which tends to align the axles into a radial position [4] ) reduces flanging on rel- atively sharp curves, and has the potential for eliminating flanging on curves less than 3 degrees (based on a 1 :20 wheel conicity) [4], This has been the experience in Australia, as illustrated in Figure 4, where increased wear life of the order of 70 to 80% has been reported [2]. Recent research by the Association of American Railroads [10] suggests that introduction of a conformal, single point contact, between the wheel and the gage comer of the high rail (in curves) will generate a lower wheel set angle of attack and reduced lateral curving forces as compared to a "two point" contact configuration. This is illustrated in Figure 5 for a range of lubrication conditions. Control of Rail Fatigue A second area of benefit associated with rail profile grinding is in the control of rail surface fatigue, and in particular fatigue defects at the gauge comer of the rail head. This includes both sur- face fatigue defects, such as spalling, and sub-surface fatigue defects, such as gage comer shelling, such as commonly found on heavy axle load freight operations. This is the area of benefit most fre- quently reported by North American heavy haul freight railroads [11,12]. In this application, profile grinding is used to relieve the very high contact stresses in the region of the gage comer of the high rail associated with single point contact in a severe flanging condition (such as on a sharp curve) - see Figure 6. These high stresses can result in gage comer fatigue prob- lems, including cracking and spalling. By grinding the gage comer of the high rail, the contact is shifted away from this comer and into a more central location on the rail head. In the case of sharper curves where flanging takes place, a second contact point between the flange of the wheel and the gage face of the rail can occur, thus generating "two-point" contact between the wheel and the rail. This dividing of the wheel/rail contact site into two points reduces the contact stres.ses at any one point and can result in a decrease in both surface fatigue "spalling" and sub-surface fatigue "shelling" [2, II]. [Note, it may be possible to obtain a similar effect by broadening the contact point, such as through the use of a "conformal" contact profile, provided that a sufficiently large conformal contact area is effectively maintained for the broad range of wheel profiles encountered in service. However, this may still require a proper grinding program to maintam an effective contact profile and to con- trol surface fatigue.] This profile is based on new or well maintained wheels. For worn wheels, such as hollow worn wheels wiih false flanges, ihis would have to he modified, such as by adding field side relief to the low rail. 154 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Avarag* Wh*«l sat Anol*-«r-Attaok 8*otlon 2S. 9-0«gr«« Curv* 2 Pt Centeet. Lsad Axt« Conformal, L«ad Axl* 2 Rt Contaet. Trail Axl» " ^ ~ "^ 1* ConTormafTTrBll Axt< I High Rail Lubad Both > Ralla - Lubad a 8 »r " + 20 CO e m o 5 04- 6 4- Avaraga Lataral Whaal/Rall Foreaa Inalda Rail Saetlon 25. e-Dagraa Curva 2 Pt Contact Laad Axia Confbrmal. Laad AxIa 2 Rt Contact. Trail AxIa Conformal, Trail Axl Both Ralla- Diy High Rail ■ Lubad Both - Ralla- Lubad Figure 5. Angle-of-Attack and Lateral Forces before (Conformal) and after (2 point contact) High Rail Gage Corner Relief Grinding HIGH RAIL WORN WHEEL RAILRELO Figure 6. Gauge Corner Spalling and Profile Grinding to Relieve it Paper by A.M. Zarembski 155 Ti "^^ ^ SINGLE POINT CONTACT r=\ /^ TWO POINT CONTACT Figure 7. Single Point Versus Two Point Contact Steering Forces Gage comer grinding allows for a "wearing" away of the surface fatigue damaged rail steel, and a relocating of the (interior) point of maximum rail stress, before fatigue damage can initiate a fail- ure defect. This is particularly important for well lubricated track or for premium hardness rail steels, where the rate of wear has been substantially reduced. As was noted previously, this change in wheel rail contact, from one point to two-point contact, can result in a deterioration in truck curving performance [13], and a corresponding increase in the wheel/rail flanging forces (see Figure 7). The result of this can be an increase in gage face wear, if no other action is taken. Therefore, this type of gage comer profile grinding should be used primar- ily in those areas where rail fatigue and not rail wear is the dominant rail failure mode. Control of Corrugations The third area where benefit has been derived from profile grinding is in the area of comiga- tion control; in particular, the control of the heavy axle load short wave cormgations found on the low rail of curves, as commonly observed on North American freight railroads. These corrugations generally have wavelengths in the range of 12 to 24 inches on wood tie track [14]. These corrugations are often associated with the high contact stresses generated when the false flange of a worn wheel runs on the field side of the low rail. This contact, which is counter- formal (i.e., the curvature of the two bodies in contact, are opposite to each other), causes significantly higher wheel/rail contact stresses than the other (conformal) wheel/rail contact configurations [6]. When this high contact stress is located near the field side of the low rail, severe plastic deformations and corresponding short wave corrugations can result. 156 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Profile grinding has been used to control these short wave ("freight") corrugations on North American freight railroads. By grinding the field side of the low rail to shift the contact point towards the center of the rail head, the high stress producing false flange contact is avoided. In tests on North American freight railroads, the use of profile grinding to control the regrowth of corrugations was found to significantly reduce this regrowth rate as compared to conventional (defect elimination) grinding patterns [6,7]. While in general it is not possible to effectively combine profiles (i.e. wear and fatigue control profiles have significant differences which do not lend themselves to combination into one profile), it is possible to control corrugations in conjunction with another profiling activity. Thus, most rail- road profiles include corrugation control in addition to control of either wear or fatigue. This has led to the significant reduction (and in some cases the elimination) of corrugations in an environment where frequent grinding passes are made to control and maintain the required rail head profiles (often in conjunction with the use of improved [higher strength] rail steels and/or lubrication). Grinding vs. Lubrication Rail maintenance grinding takes on increased importance in a overall effective rail maintenance program which includes effective lubrication, extensive defect testing, and the desire to obtain the maximum life of the rail in its first position. This becomes quite apparent in the rail degradation environment found on moderate and heavy curvature track under heavy freight loadings. If there is no effective rail lubrication, the result is a high rate of gage face wear, with rail (gage face) wear being the predominant cause for rail removal [15]. However, with the introduction of effective lubrication, and the corresponding dramatic reduction in rail wear, this wear mechanism is significantly reduced so that fatigue emerges as a critical criterion [16]. This behavior can be seen in examining the relationship between wheel and rail contact in mod- erate to sharp curves. In unlubricated track, rail degradation generally takes the form of severe adhe- sive wear on the high rail of the curve. In lubricated track, it takes the form of surface fatigue devel- opment (spalling) at the gage comer of the railhead. This build up of surface fatigue is aggravated in the case of well lubricated track, where no wear is allowed to occur. Without any significant railhead wear, this surface fatigue is allowed to cumulate, with the result that it can cause removal of the rail from track, if no corrective action is taken [11]. In addition, in the presence of a high level of lubri- cation, and the corresponding significant reduction in rail wear, fatigue can cumulate below the sur- face of the railhead, such as the point of maximum shear stress in the railhead. This can result in the development of subsurface defects such as rail shells. The relationship between rail life and rail lubrication is dramatically illustrated in Figure 8, which presents rail life data from a 5 degree curve at the Facility for Accelerated Service Testing, FAST [16]. In the unlubricated environment, i.e., in a dry condition, the rail in this curve required replacement after 80 to 100 MGT of traffic. (Note, traffic was primarily heavy axle load, 100 Ton car traffic.) When the rail was "fully lubricated" the wear rate was reduced by a factor of 10, such that the projected wear life of the rail, under the same traffic conditions, was 1000 MGT. This was based on gage face wear. However, well before this extended wear life was realized, the rail began to expe- rience significant fatigue defects. In fact, the 5 percent defect level (i.e. the 5th percentile which cor- responds to the point where many railroads replace rails due to excessive fatigue defects) was reached after approximately 180 MGT Thus, using standard railroad criterion for the replacement of rail in main line tracks, it was found that lubrication of the rail (in this case) extended the rail life from 80-100 MGT (dry) to 180 MGT (due to fatigue), or approximately double the life. While this represents a significant extension of life, it can be seen that the development of fatigue defects resulted in the "failure" of the rail well before the rail's potential wear life of 1000 MGT. Further, it can be observed that there was a change in failure mechanism, from wear in the dry environment, to fatigue in the lubricated environment. Paper by A.M. Zarembski 157 Ptrewit FaMmd 200 MGT 300 MGT Pr*tflet«dQag«-i I I pPrsdIcUd Qag« Fae«W«arUf* I I Faca Waar Ufa for for Dry S* Cunra ill 1 Liibdealad S* Curva C3J 10.* i.a •.1 0.01 0.001 Std C Rail — r-1 5- Curva YxZ" b' Sth .- Parcanlll* X, >•>{ i '^ji ... /'X U.S. RR l/^ /I ?\\ \ i_I l_J___ 10 100 1000 MGT Rail Ufa In MQT'a 10 000 W*ar FallQu* 1 Dry Lub'd 5lhP«re«nllla 10th P«rc«nlU« 80-100 1000-t- -■^^lao /■W300 Figure 8. Fast Rail Failure Distribution In order to allow the rail to more closely approach its wear life potential, it is necessary to control the rail fatigue build up. Rail profile grinding offers the potential for extending the fatigue life of the rail through the reduction of maximum wheel/rail contact stresses (by shifting point of maximum con- tact) and the removal of fatigue damaged metal prior to the development of fatigue defects (by artifi- cially creating controlled wear in the well lubricated track environment, and allowing for the removal, by wear, of fatigue damage rail metal [15, 16]). Noting that profile grinding has the potential of extend- ing the fatigue life of the curve rail to that of rail in tangent track [17], this could translate into a rail life of 300 to 400 MGT (based on the same FAST data as presented in Figure 8). This would represent a further doubling of the life of the rail, with a corresponding major economic benefit to the railroad. This benefit has been shown to yield a ROI benefit of rail grinding of the order of 50 to 90% [17]. Benefits of Profile Grinding The benefits of rail maintenance grinding in general and rail profile grinding in particular are primarily associated with improvements in rail performance and corresponding extension of rail life. These improvements/life extensions, which are presented here-in, are generally associated with the above defined mechanisms; i.e. wear, fatigue, and/or corrugation control, though in some cases there is a combination of effects which contribute to an overall extension of rail life. This rail life exten- sion is often seen in conjunction with other improvements, such as improvements in rail metallurgy, steel cleanliness, lubrication practices, etc. Since these other improvements can be incremental in nature, and continuously ongoing (e.g. improved steel cleanliness ), it is often difficult to isolate the benefits associated with rail grinding alone. However, as will be noted in this section, rail grinding has been shown to generate measurable extensions of rail life and improvements in rail performance. Rail grinding also generates secondary benefits associated with reduced dynamic wheel/rail load- ing, such as reduced vertical impact loadings. These reduced levels of loadings (and associated improved wheel/rail dynamic interaction) produce benefits in terms of extended component lives (wheels as well as rails [18]), reduced maintenance cycles (e.g. surfacing cycles) [19], and reduced fuel consumption [20]. In addition, by controlling and eliminating such surface defects as corrugations, rail grinding has been shown to reduce noise and vibrations, and improve rider comfort (for passenger operations). 158 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Wear As noted above, rail profile grinding was originally developed by the mining railroads of Western Australia to control rail wear, particularly on shallow curves, under heavy axle load opera- tions [4]. The result was a reported dramatic decrease in wear for curves of less than 3 degrees and a corresponding increase in rail life of the order of 70 to 80% for these curves [4]. This increased life is presented in Figure 9 which shows projected system rail requirements for one Western Australian railroad (without profile grinding) as compared to actual rail life experienced after the introduction of profile grinding [4]. This improvement in rail wear behavior was also reported in early FAST data, where field tests of the effect of profile grinding measured the reduction in both lateral flanging forces and in gage face wear, for several different rail head profiles [8]. In these tests, under 100 Ton car traffic, lateral force measurements were taken on a four degree test curve, with three different profiles and a con- trol (non-profiled) rail head. In all cases, profile grinding significantly reduced the measured lateral forces. This reduction in lateral force translated into a measurable reduction in gage face wear as illustrated in Figure 10 [8]. While, recent testing at FAST has raised questions regarding proper rail profiles (i.e. one point vs. two point contact) as well as the effect of grinding on rail wear [10], those results clearly highlight the importance of defining the proper interaction between the wheel and the rail and the corresponding wheel and rail profiles. However, it must be noted that this definition of proper rail (and wheel ) profile can have a major influence on the level of improvement in (or degra- dation oO rail wear behavior [10]. This effect must be considered in light of any other life limiting failure mechanisms that must be addressed by profile grinding. Fatigue Use of profile grinding, and in particular two point profile grinding, to control rail fatigue defects has emerged as a key application for profile grinding in North America, particularly under heavy axle load operations. Early applications of profile grinding to control fatigue have been reported by Canadian National Railways [11], Canadian Pacific Railway [6,7], BC Rail [21], and CO E LU 1980-1984 CURVE RERAIL (Projected) PLAN. ACTUAL^ ^* ./X PREDICTED FUTURE CYCLE 81 82 END OF 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 Figure 9. Effect of Profile Grinding on Curve Relay Requirements (5) Paper by A.M. Zarembski 159 0UO1O RAIL PROFILE WEAR TEST Qagt Fm« Wmt BaXt of OwMdc IWI Owring IniUal 12 UOT ol Trafflo ailar Ortndbio P S 0007 OjOOS PROfUEl PROFILD PROFILES CONTROL QS? QS? QiTP Qi:? ouraoc M«of outssc mmc outsbc msm ouraMcMrtf msm ea >»INCHOOWN E3, ••INCHOOWN Figure 10. Outside Rail Gage Faceweare — 12 MGT UJ Ik ui O u. o i 1962 (Start of ProfUt Grinding Program) 1983 D TO 1964 ♦ TOTAL DEFECTS 1985 1986 Figure 11. Rail Defects on Major North American Railroad (defects normalized by actual miles tested) 160 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association others. In the case of one major North American railroad, profile grinding has been reported to have effected a systemwide reduction in fatigue related defects, particularly transverse defects (IDs), which in this case includes the detail fracture class of defects (which is most affected by profile grind- ing). This reduction in defects is illustrated in Figure 1 1 [17]. Similar effects on defect reduction have been reported in Australia where fatigue defects (as detected by ultrasonic rail testing) have been reduced by more than half, as illustrated in Figure 12 [18]. Rail Grinding Mt. Newman Mining Co. Pty. Ltd. Total Kilomstars • 1.000 Eff«otiv« Kilom«tar« • 100 81 82 83 84 85 88 87 88 Financial Years - Ending May 89 90 Total Kllomatara Effactlva Kllomatara Ultrasonic Defects Mt. Newman Mining Co. Pty. Ltd. Dafacts par Million Tonna Rallad Numbar of Dafacts 81 82 83 84 85 B8 87 88 89 Financial Years - Ending May Figure 12. Rail-Grinding and Rail-Defect Experience Paper by A.M. Zarembski 161 More recent North American experience have confirmed this effect. This includes recent expe- rience on Canadian Pacific [23. 23] and Budington Northern [24, 25]. The relationship between effective profile grinding and control of fatigue defects is clearly illustrated in Figure 13 [25] which shows the number of detail fracture type fatigue defects experi- enced by the Budington Northern Railroad during the period 1984 through 1995. Between 1983 and 1988, Burlington Northern performed profile grinding, generating a basic "two point" contact con- figuration on their rail [25]. As can be seen from Figure 13, the number of detail fractures were con- trolled and kept at a relatively low rate. In the period of 1988 through 1990, Budington Northern changed to a lighter "conformal" (one point) grinding pattern with a resulting surge in detail fracture defects (see Figure 13) as well as a "rash" of defect related broken rail derailments (with a cost in excess of S6.5 million) [25]. By 1990 through 1991, Burlington Northern switched back to a more aggressive "two point" profile grinding and again experienced a reduction in detail fracture type fatigue defects, as illustrated in Figure 13 [25]. Thus, BN reports a strong correlation between effec- tive profile grinding and the control of rail fatigue defects. Corrugations Control of rail corrugations was one of the original priorities in North American profile grind- ing practices. In fact, one of the earliest controlled tests of rail grinding carefully examined the effect of profile grinding on corrugation development and recurrence [6,7]. The results of these tests, which are presented in Figure 14, show that corrugation regrowth was significantly slower using profile grinding techniques than it had been using conventional (defect elimination ) grinding patterns. This reduced growth rate was equivalent to an extension of the grinding cycle from the previous 6 month interval to a 8 month interval, an extension of 33%. In addition, it was observed during that more fre- quent maintenance grinding, could reduce the overall amount of grinding by eliminating the corru- gations while they were relatively shallow (or even before they begin to emerge). More recent testing on CP Rail and BC Rail [21,26] confirmed this benefit and further showed that preventive maintenance grinding using appropriate grinding profiles can forestall the develop- ment of corrugations and provide for a rail "free of corrugations and service defects" [26]. Comparison Passmiles Ground vs. Detail Fractures PASSMILES DETAIL FRACTURES 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 YEARS 500 Figure 13. Detail Fracture History on Burlington Northern Railroad 162 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Average Corrugation Regrowth, All Curves Comigatlon .02 Growth (inch6s) J03 M JOSB • JOSA — .024 " A. .022 - \ .02 - • \ n rlOlM PlllMII .018 — \ \ A* ^^^ X16 - \ \ ^^^,,.^-»-*'^"'^ .014 "* \\ ^^^ «'*• Pipflto PMflfffi 1 .012 — \ \ rt****^ B* ^.—''"^^ .01 •* \ \ — - ^^^^-"^ JOOt - \ .006 ■• \ .004 ., O" ■" .002 -m 0 1 1 A 1 1 1 . 1 _ Prv^rind 0 Months Post Grinding (4.6 MGT Per Month) Figure 14. Corrugation Regrowtti After Profile Grinding Maximum Wheel /Rail Contact Force as a Function of Corrugation Depth and Frequency 80 70 60 Contact Force 50 {1000'sof lbs) 40 10 Static Load 30 20 40 20 35 50 65 Corrugation Depth (Inches) 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Corrugation Frequency V/X (Hz) Figure 15 162 Paper by A.M. Zarembski 163 Vertical Impact Dynamics Corrugations and other rail service defects represent a source of dynamic wheel/rail excitation and corresponding impact loading which has the potential for generating significant damage not only to the rail, but also to the track structure and vehicles [27,28]. This behavior is illustrated in Figure 15 which shows a more than doubling of the dynamic wheel/rail forces associated with corrugations of the order of 0.050 inches. In addition to generating dynamic impact forces, corrugations generate noise and vibration, and can cause significant discomfort to passengers on rail vehicles [29]. Effective rail grinding can elim- inate the growth and recurrence of corrugations (see Corrugations above) with a corresponding elim- ination of wheel/rail dynamic forces, noise and vibration. Noise reduction of the order of 7 dB and greater have been reported in conjunction with the elimination of rail corrugations by grinding. Overall Improvements in Rail Life As has been noted previously, while significant increases in rail life have been reported in con- junction with rail grinding, actual field results often commingle several maintenance effects, so that the effect of rail grinding is masked somewhat by concurrent improvements in rail steels, in lubrica- tion practices, and in inspection practices. In spite of this, railroads who have been able to document extensive increases in rail life, have attributed these extensions of rail life, in very large part, to rail profile grinding. Such is the case on the Burlington Northern Railroad, where improvements in aver- age rail life of the order of 50 to 300-1- '/c have been reported (see Figure 16), with rail grinding being credited with being a key factor in this extension [12, 24]. Canadian National Railways also reported significant increases in rail life associated with a combination of increased lubrication, improved rail steels, and rail profile grinding [11]. This over- all increase was reported to be of the order of 5(X)-(-%. CN further reported that if proper grinding was not performed on an ongoing basis, the rail could lose "95% of its potential service life" [11]. Likewise the case in Western Australia where rail profile grinding, in conjunction with improved wheel/rail interaction control has been credited with dramatic increases in rail life, with a current 1500 ■ 1250 ■ 1000 • 750 . Kf\f\ ?ail Life in M J QT I ■ 250. 0- p ' Tangent Rail Premium rail steels 1 d«g. 11981 2 d«0.* 11989 3 d«g.« Figure 16. Average Expectations for Rail Life [12] 164 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Track Miles Treated by Grinding By Year IbOUMRll 1982 1963 1984 1985 1986 1987 1968 1988 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 uawwu*. Figure 17a Rail Replacements - CP Rail Track miles of new rail laid 350 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 |»Newraiil Figure 17 a & b forecast rail life of the order of 2.4 Billion Gross Tons [18]. This represents a multi-fold increase in rail life from that experienced even a decade before. Other North American Railroads have likewise reported increases in rail life associated with rail grinding to include CP Rail, CSX, and Conrail. In the case of CP Rail, the effect of rail grinding on rail life is clearly illustrated in Figures 17a and 17b. [23]. These figures show a dramatic reduction in miles of new rail laid during the period 1987 through 1995, which corresponds directly with the increase in miles of rail grinding for that same period. While other factors such as improved lubrica- tion and metallurgy have contributed to the significant reduction in new rail requirements, CP cred- its rail grinding as being a key factor in this dramatic extension of rail service life [22, 23]. Issues in Profile Grinding While profile grinding has resulted in demonstrable benefits to railroads in terms of extended rail life and reduced damage to the track structure and rolling stock, profile grinding does change the wheel/rail contact environment with the resulting potential for undesirable behavior if not properly addressed. Paper by A.M. Zarembski 165 The first such potential area of concern is the change in steering forces associated with the change in wheel/rail contact points. As noted previously, changing wheel rail contact from one point contact (wear control) to two-point contact (fatigue control) can result in a deterioration in truck curv- ing performance, and a corresponding increase in the wheel/rail flanging forces (and associated rail gage face wear) [13]. This is illustrated in Figure 7 which shows a small increase in truck turning moments, associated with moving the contact point on the high rail towards the center of the rail head (and thus increasing the truck turning moment arm). This in turn generates an increase in lateral force as shown in Figure 5 which increases rail gage face wear [10] and also the potential for gage widen- ing and rail overturning on curves [13]. This is of particular concern in environment where both the high and low rails are dry (such as immediately behind the rail grinder) or where the high rail is lubri- cated and the low rail is dry, which, as seen in Figure 5, generates the highest level of lateral loads. This increase in force is of potential concern, and should be addressed in an overall system design, where the wheel and rail profiles must be optimized in order to achieve the optimum steer- ing forces while maximizing the lives of the key components. Thus, it may be necessary to "trade- off" key track and vehicle performance parameters in order to optimize the overall system. Thus, if fatigue is the dominant replacement mode for the rails in curves (in a well lubricated environment), additional rail wear may not be an important factor, since the rail life is not limited by the wear. Similarly, it may be necessary to balance the strength of the track with the level of traffic loadings, such as by careful testing of the gage strength or by the use of high strength elastic fastening systems. A second area of potential concern resulting from the shifting of the wheel/rail contact points is a change in the location of the applied vertical and lateral forces on the rail, and the corresponding overturning moment applied to the rail. This overturning moment is generally defined by an L/V ratio (ratio of lateral [L] and vertical [V] forces applied to the rail head) as illustrated in Figure 18. When the resultant of the applied lateral and vertical forces passes outside the base of the rail, the rail is no longer stable on its own base, but has a net overturning force applied to it. In these cases, the rail is restrained by its fastening system, and if this fastening system is weak or inadequate, the rail has the potential for rolling (rail head moves out laterally) and even potentially overturning. Figure 18. Rail Rollover Diagram 166 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association HIGH RAIL LOW RAIL LATERAL FORCE COhfTACT POINT WHEEL LATERAL FORCE VERTICAL FORCE RESULTANT FORCE RESULTANT FORCE Figure 19. Rail Rollover Criterion By shifting the contact point of the vertical and lateral forces from the gage comer to the cen- ter or field side of the rail head, the overturning resistance is decreased. This is illustrated in Figure 1 9, which shows that if the lateral and vertical forces are applied to the gauge comer, the L/ V ratio required to provide this potential instability is approximately 0.6. If these forces moved to the center of the rail head, such as would happen if contact was moved from the gage comer to the center of the high rail head, the overtuming L/V ratio is reduced to approximately 0.4. If the forces are moved to the field side of the rail head, the overturning L/V ratio can be as low as 0.2. Such a case can occur if the false flange of the wheel is riding on the field side of the low. In the case of the low rail, several of the ground profiles shift the contact point away from the field side of the rail head (and false flange contact) towards the center of the rail head. Thus, in these cases, profile grinding to alleviate false flange contact will also serve to increase the overtuming sta- bility of the low rail (from an L/V < 0.2 to an L/V > 0.4). In the case of the high rail, shifting from one point contact on the gage comer of the rail to a two point contact, such as illustrated in Figure 7, will reduce the L/V ratio required to overtum the high rail from approximately 0.6 (gage comer contact) to approximately 0.5 for the two point con- tact normally introduced by current railroad grinding patterns (fatigue control). This reduction is diminished, if the separation between the two contact points is reduced, as is the case for several "new generation" grinding pattems [22]. This reduction in overtuming resistance must likewise be accounted for by the maintenance of adequate track strength for the load environment on that curve. Summary Rail grinding has evolved over the past several decades from a relatively simplistic method of removing defects from the surface of the rail head to a more complex maintenance technique which controls not only the development of defects in the rail, but also the interaction and associated con- Paper by A.M. Zarembski 167 tact between the wheel and the rail. This latter technique, which controls the shape or profile of the rail head, allows for the extension of the life of the rail by addressing the dominant rail degradation mechanism(s), which can vary from location to location. By combining this profile maintenance tech- nique with a preventive grinding philosophy, it is possible to achieve significant extensions in the life of the rail. Rail profile grinding has been used to address three major modes of degradation; wear, fatigue and corrugations (surface defects). By selection of an appropriate rail head profile (or profiles since separate profiles are used on opposite rails in curves), reductions in the mode of degradation and its associated degradation rate can be achieved. This has been documented on railroads in the United States, Canada, and Australia, who have reported significant extensions of rail life. While grinding is usually only one of .several simultaneous maintenance strategies employed to improve rail life, it has been demonstrated to be a key strategy, the absence of which can result in a rapid degradation in the rail condition and corresponding shortening of the rail life. Since rail represents the one of the largest (if not the single largest) maintenance of way cost area for most main line freight railroads, the con- trol of rail degradation and extension of rail life represents a high priority for most maintenance of way departments. Rail grinding, like many other technologies, must be used carefully and intelligently. When properly used it has been shown to contribute to a significant extension of rail life, reduction in rail (and other track maintenance) costs, and improvement in the dynamic wheel/rail loading environment. If not used properly, it has the potential for causing increased lateral wheel/rail forces, increased rail wear, and increased risk of rail overturning. Therefore, rail grinding must be used with a proper understanding of its benefits and limitations. When u.sed effectively, rail grinding represents a valu- able tool for the control of rail degradation, and for the reduction in overall track maintenance costs. References 1. Butler, R. W. et al.. Criteria for Rail Grinding, Report of Special Committee No. 3, Proceedings of the Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way Association, 93rd Annual Conference, September 1981. 2. Zarembski, A. M., "The Evolution and Application of Rail Profile Grinding", Bulletin of the American Railway Engineering Association, Bulletin 718, December 1988. 3. Manual for Railway Engineering , American Railway Engineering A.ssociation, 1995 4. Lamson, S. T., and Longson, B. H., "Development of Rail Profile Grinding at Hammersley Iron", Proceedings of the Second International Heavy Haul Railways Conference, Colorado Springs, 1982. 5. Kalou.sek, J., "Thorough Lubrication and Light Grinding Prevents Rail Corrugation", Proceedings of the Rail & Wheel Lubrication Seminar, Memphis TN, June 1987. 6. Lamson, S. T., " Rail Profile Grinding", Canadian Institute of Guided Ground Transport Report 82- 7, November 1982. 7. Lamson, S. T, " Rail Profile Grinding; Phase II Test Report", Canadian Institute of Guided Ground Transport Report 84-14, February 1985. 8. Walker. G. W., "Effects of Rail Profile Variation", Report from the Facility for Accelerated Service Testing (FAST), FRA/ORD-86-04, March 1986. 9. "Rail Grinding Equipment: Traditional and Modem", Speno Rail Services, Technical Notes Number 7, 1986. 10. Hannafious. J., "Rail Grinding at FAST", Proceeding of the First Annual AAR Research Review, Volume I: FAST/HAL Test Summaries, Pueblo, CO, November 1995. 168 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association 1 1 . Worth A. W., Homaday, J. R., Jr., and Richards, P. R., "Prolonging Rail Life Through Grinding", Proceedings of the Third International Heavy Haul Railways Conference, Vancouver, B. C, October 1986. 12. Glavin, W. , "Rail Grinding The BN Experience", Bulletin of the American Railway Engineering As.sociation, Bulletin 722, October 1989. 13. "Effects of Rail Gage Comer Grinding and Wheel Tread Hollowing on Gage Widening Behavior", Association of American Railroads Vehicle Track Systems Newsletter, Railway Age, June 1994. 14. Zarembski, A. M., "Corrugation Behavior in the Freight Railroad Environment", Bulletin of the American Railway Engineering Association, Bulletin 712, Volume 88, October 1987. 15. Kalousek, J., "Wear and Contact Fatigue Model for Railway Rail", National Research Council Canada Report 27491, (Transport Canada Report No. TP 8344E), 1986. 16. Steele, R. K., "Rail Lubrication: The Relationship of Wear and Fatigue", Transportation Research Board, Railroad Maintenance Workshop, Amherst, MA, June 1985. 17. Zarembski, A. M., "The Relationship Between Rail Grinding and Rail Lubrication", Second International Symposium on Wheel/Rail Lubrication, Memphis, TN, June 1987. 18. Mitchell, R. and Dudek, J., "Operating Experience with Heavy Axles at Mt. Newman Mining Co. Pty Limited", Heavy Axle Load Workshop, Pueblo CO, October 1990. 19. "The Economics of Grinding Part II: Tie and Surfacing Savings", Speno Technical Note Number 3, 1983. 20. "The Economics of Grinding Part III: Fuel Savings", Speno Technical Note Number 4, 1984. 21. Kalou.sek, J. , Sroba, P., and Hegelund, C, "Analysis of Rail grinding Tests and Implications for Corrective and Preventive Grinding", Fourth International Heavy Haul Railways Conference, Brisbane, Australia, September 1989. 22. Roney, M. D., Kalousek, J., and Sroba, P., "Management of Rail Profiles Through Rail Grinding", Proceedings of the International Heavy Haul Railways Conference, Vancouver, B. C, June 1991. 23. Wilson, Allan, "Developing and Managing Rail Maintenance Programs", ARM Rail Maintenance Seminar, Chicago, Illinois, April 1996. 24. Besch, G. O., "BN Grinds Out Longer Rail Life", Progressive Railroading, April 1990. 25. Tornga, G., "Conformal and Non-conformal Grinding Experiences", ARM Rail Maintenance Seminar, Chicago, Illinois, April 1996. 26. Kalousek, J., "Maintaining Corrugation Free Rail in Heavy Haul Track", Railway Gazette International, 1989. 27. "The Consequences of Corrugations and Surface Defects", Speno Technical Note Number I, 1982. 28. Zarembski, A. M., "The Impact of Rail Surface Defects", Railway Track and Structures, November 1984. 29. Grassie, S. L. and Kalousek, J., "Rail Corrugation: Characteri.stics, Causes and Treatments", Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Volume 207, 1993. SERVICE LEVEL LIVE LOAD STRESS RANGES ON HANGERS AND FLOOR BEAMS OF STEEL RAILWAY BRIDGES By: Robert A. P. Sweeney*, Hoat Le** and George Oommen*** Introduction This is the third report on the testing of 70 Railway bridge spans of various length and design. The first of the series "A Summary of Seven years of Railway Bridge Testing at Canadian National Railway"' provided a summary of field measured static (crawl speed) point stresses compared to the- oretical calculated stresses, as used in normal bridge rating practice and several changes to the cur- rent American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) manual were also suggested. The second of the series, "Impact of Site Measurements on Evaluation of Steel Railway Bridges"" summarized and reviewed the test results of some fatigue sensitive components such as bottom flanges of plate girders & stringers and bottom chords of through trusses and deck trusses. Reasonable values for the a factor (ratio of measured static stresses to theoretical static stresses) and impact factor (as a per- centage of the one specified in chapter 15 of the AREA manual) were proposed. Hangers in through truss spans and floor beams in all truss spans are the subjects of this paper. They are among the most critical members in terms of fatigue sensitivity. This is due to the fact that they undergo a very high number of stress cycles compared to members with longer loaded length (70' or more), and are loaded in ways that are different from the usual calculations models. Furthermore, in terms of hangers, shear lag has been shown to be a major failure instigator in riveted hanger connections. This paper does not include the end effects where the influence of shear lag is critical. This paper explores the extent to which the method used in computing the theoretical stresses can influence the value of the a factor in hangers. The paper also propo.ses reasonable impact factors that could be used for fatigue life evaluation, depending on which method is used to obtain the the- oretical stresses. The paper highlights the imperfections in conventional analytical techniques for fatigue life evaluation of hangers and floor beams in truss spans. Description of the Tested Spans This paper contains test results on 15 hangers and 14 floor beams on various through and deck truss spans from 1 15' to 348' long (with one exception of a 640' long span). The tested spans had built-up and riveted construction, typical of turn of the century designs. Some of the bottom chords and tension members were eye bars with or without pin plates. All the trusses tested had open decks, except for one with rail chairs. The hangers had loaded lengths between 46' and 70'. The floor beams had loaded lengths between 38' and 63'. Field Test Test data used in this report was based on controlled field tests using a work train. The work train generally consisted of one or two locomotives followed by six or more pre-weighed loaded cars. * Assi. Chief Engineer Structures, CN Railways •'Bridge Testing Engineer, CN Railways **• System Engineer Bridge Assessment. CN Railways 169 170 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association Tests were conducted at various speeds ranging from crawl speed, up to 60 mph (depending on maximum allowable track speed). The presented data is based on maximum recorded point stresses (not averages across a member), and maximum measured impact at the maximum recorded stresses (regardless of speed). Since the intent of these tests was to establish the dynamic behavior under normal operating conditions, no attempts were made to resurface the track or eliminate other imperfections, such as flat wheels, out of round wheels, low approaches and bad rail joints). No modifications were done on the bearings. All the recordings were carried out when the atmospheric temperature was between 0° C and 35° C (32°F and 95°F). Discussion on Allowable Stresses The present AREA manual specifies two di.stinct ways of computing the theoretical stresses in hangers. In the Desifin section (1.4) of the manual, the specified basic allowable .stresses of 0.55Fy for tension members including bending is further reduced to 71% for floor beam carrying riveted hang- ers. This is equivalent to multiplying the theoretical stresses by 1.40, while keeping the allowable stresses at 0.55Fy. The intent is to compensate for design calculations using simple models, which provide axial stresses plus the out of plane bending component due to the floor beam framing into the hangers, while ignoring the usually small in plane bending and the larger effect due to shear lag in riveted hanger connections. In the Rating .section (7.3.4) of the manual, the specified basic allowable stres.ses of O.SOFy for tension members (mild steel) is further reduced to 75% for floor beam carrying hangers (riveted con- nection) including bending. This is equivalent to multiplying the theoretical stresses by 1.33, while keeping the allowable stresses at O.SOFy. As in the eariier case, the intent is to compensate for design calculations using simple models, which provide axial stresses plus the out of plane bending component due to the floor beam framing into the hangers, while ignoring the usually small in plane bending and the larger effect due to shear lag in riveted hanger connections. The results reported in this paper are free of shear lag effects since the measuring points were sufficiently distant from the end connections. The reader should refrain from making a direct comparison between the "Design" and "Maximum Rating" values, because the effective allowable stresses are very different in each case (0.71 X 0.55Fy = 0.39Fy for Design and 0.75 x O.SOFy = 0.6Fy for Rating). Discussion on Test Results The test results (static & dynamic) are compared against various theoretical values, and pre- .sented in a series of 12 figures as follows: • Fig. 1-2: Hangers, theoretical stresses based on simple truss models (axial stress only). • Fig. 3-8: Hangers, theoretical .stresses based on simple truss models, augmented by a con- stants ( 1 .40 & 1.33) and by simple hand style out of plane bending calculations (hanger / floor beam frame). • Fig. 9-12: Floor beams, theoretical stres.ses based on simply supported beam model. Note: The dotted lines in the graphs only show the relative position of the dots with respect to the 45° line (above or below it), if the theoretical values were to be multiplied by the given constant. Graphs showing the exact absolute position of the dots are not included in this paper. Paper by RAP. Sweeney. H. Le and G. Oommcn 171 SUMM^UiY OF MEASURED M THBORETKAL STRESSES (static only) THROUGH TRUSS HANGISS 46<L«^ 1.0 12000- Alph«-0.»5 Q Riilchurt 0 ^^'^ 10000- -.. j^. 0 ^^.X"^"'^ O ^^.--^ 8000' n a ^-^^ ^^ 1 1 0- 1 Theory includes axial only | 1 MOO 4000 6000 8000 THBOREnCAL STRESSES (PSD 10000 12000 Figure 1 SUMMARY OF RCASURS) >• THEORETICAL STRESSES fincludins invact) THROUGH TRUSS HANGBiS 46<L<70 12000 2 10000 BC 8000 a g 6000 3 V> 2 4000 2000-- a o -Rj«io-1.0 Rj«io-0.«3 0 Rjilcbiin Opadadc ^y^ fi 0 . 8 8 ^ 0 iThfli sry includea axial only [j |Tbeo«v incl. 100S o(th»of. impact | 1 1 1 1 2000 6000 8000 10000 THEORflKAL STRESSES (PSQ 12000 14000 16000 Figure 2 172 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association SUMMARY OF MEASURED v THEORETICAL STRESSES (static only) THROUGH TRUSS HANGERS 14000 12000 10000 8000 46<L-^?0 S 6000-- 2000 2000 ... 1.0 Alpha - O Rtildiain o Opcnd«ck ^ — ^ --■'^'O o W" ^^>^^^-"' CD 00 0 ^^^ o ^-^ iTheory -1.40 x axial comp. { 1 4000 6000 8000 THEORETICAL STRESSES (PSI) 10000 12000 Figure 3 SUMMARY OF MEASURED v TOBOREnCAL STRESSES (patie only) THROUm TRUSS HANGERS 46<L«^ ■ 1 1.0 12000- 2 10000- a RAilcfaiin O Opadedc .^'^'(i ^^^ i .--^ r"'" 2 «x»- ^^<^ . c6 50 0 s ^^<^" o r^ 0- |Theo<y =1.33 x axial comp. | 2000 4000 6000 8000 THBORCnCAL STRESSES (PSI) 10000 12000 Figure 4 Paper by R.A.P. Sweeney, H. Le and G. Oomitien 173 14000 12000 ICOOO 8000 eooo 4000 2000 46<L<e7D SWIMARY OF MEASURJDw THEORETICAL STRESSES rincludinr inmacf\ THROUGH TRUSS HANGERS 1 — -Ruio-I.O a 0 Op«dedc ^ o y^ C o .-8 0 .y^^ .-■■' <? ^^ {Theory " 1.33 X axial comp. \- [Theory incl. 35% oftheor. impact 1 'a 1 V 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 THEDRETICAL STRESSES (PSI) 12000 14000 16000 Figure 5 SUMMARY OF MEASURED y THBOREnCAL STRESSES (static only) THROUGH TRUSS HANGERS 46<L-OD 1 1.0 0.85 ft 13000- 10000- □ Rjildiii o o ^.^--^ < .^r^^^ ^<^ a ^.^ .■■■■'"6 .^ [Theory irKludee out of plar>e t»ndng { 0- 1 1 2000 4000 6000 8000 THEORETICAL STRESSES (PSI) 10000 120OO Figure 6 174 Bulletin 760 — American Railway Engineering Association SLMVUIlYOr MEASURg)^ THBORgTICALSTRBSeS nneludint mw>aet\ THROUGH TRUSS HANGISS 46<L<70 1 y-^ »..■•■■" io-1.0 VXCD' Q Riilduin O Op«nd«dc ^ b' ^y^ ... -6 i ^ o \